PHARMACEUTICS-II (PHYSICAL PHARMACY-II)
(Theory)
Cr. Hr. 03
1. DISPERSED SYSTEM:
(a) Colloids: Types, methods of preparation, properties (optional, kinetic, electrical) Dialysis and artificial kidney, stability of colloids, protection and sensitization phenomenon and application of colloids in Pharmacy.
(b) Emulsions: Types, theories of emulsification. Emulsifying agents, their classification and stability of emulsion.
(c) Suspensions: Type, Methods of Preparation, Properties, Suspending agents, their classification and stability.
(d) Adsorption Techniques: Adsorption techniques and processes of adsorption in detail.
2. RHEOLOGY:
(a) Definition and Fundamental concept.
(b) Properties contributing to rheological behaviour.
(c) Graphic presentation of rheological data.
3. RATE and ORDER OF REACTIONS.
4. KINETIC PRINCIPLES AND STABILITY TESTING: THEORETIC
CONSIDERATIONS: Degradation:
(a) Physical Factors: Influence of pH, temperature, ionic strength, acidbase catalysis, U.V. light.
(b) Chemical Factors: Complex chemical reactions. Oxidation-reduction, hydrolysis.
PHARMACEUTICS-II (PHYSICAL PHARMACY-II)
(Laboratory)
Cr. Hr. 01
NOTE:- Practicals of the subject shall be designed from time to time on the basis of the above mentioned theoretical topics and availability of the facilities, e.g. Determination of Emulsion systems. Determination of %age composition of solutions by specific gravity method. Determination of Partition-coefficient, surface tension, viscosity.
Recommended Books
1. Martin, Physical Pharmacy, B I Waverly PVT, Delhi, 4th Ed., 1994.
2. Cooper and Gunns Tutorial Pharmacy, CBS Publishers & Distributors, New Delhi, 1986.
3. Bentley’s Pharmaceutics, All India Traveler Book Seller, New Delhi, 1996.
4. Martin P, Bustamante, P and Chun, Physical & Chemical Principles of Pharmaceutical Science, AHC, 4th Ed., (1999), New York.
5. Martin AMN, Banker G S and Chun AHC Advances in Pharmaceutical Sciences. Academic Press, London, 1985.
6. Mill C C, Casson N, Rehology of dispress systems. Pergamon Press, New York, 1975.
7. Rienger M and Scott-Blair G W, Rehology. Academic Press, London, 1990.
8. Barry B W, Advances in Pharmaceutical Sciences, Academic Press, London, 1990.
9. Sherman P. Emulsion Science, Academic Press, London, 1972.
10. Martin A, Swarbrick J and Cammatra A Physical Pharmacy, 3rd Ed., Lee & Febiger, Philadelphia, 1983.
11. Attwood D and Flocence A T, Surfactant Systems. Chapman and Hall Ltd, London, 1982.
Wednesday, March 2, 2011
First Professional, Second Semester, Pharmaceutical BioChemistry
PHARMACEUTICAL BIOCHEMISTRY-II
(Theory)
Cr. Hr. 03
1. Metabolic fate of Biomolecules (Anabolism and Catabolism)
(a) Carbohydrates: Introduction to metabolism, Brief introduction to the digestion and absorption of carbohydrates, Aerobic and anaerobic breakdown of Glucose, Glycolysis, Pentose Phosphate Pathway, Glycogenolysis, Glycogenesis, Gluconeogenesis, Citric acid cycle, Energetics of various metabolic processes.
(b) Lipids: Brief introduction to the digestion and absorption of lipids, Oxidation of fatty acids through รข-oxidation, Biosynthesis of fatty acids, neutral lipids and cholesterol.
(c) Proteins and Amino acids: Brief introduction to the digestion and absorption of proteins and amino acids, Metabolism of essential and non-essential amino acids, Biosynthesis and catabolism of Haemins and porphyrin compounds.
(d) Bioenergetics: Principles of bioenergetics. Electron transport chain and oxidative phosphorylation.
2. Regulation of Metabolic Processes
(a) Role of Vitamins: Physiological role of Fat-soluble (A, D, E and K) and Water-soluble (Thiamin, Riboflavin, Pantothenic acid, Niacin, Pyridoxal phosphate, Biotin Folic acid, Cyanocobalamin – members of B-complex family – and Ascorbic acid), Coenzymes and their role in the regulation of metabolic processes.
(b) Receptor mediated regulation (Hormones): Mechanism of action of hormones, Physiological roles of various hormones, Site of synthesis and target sites of hormones.
(c) Secondary Messengers: Role of cAMP, Calcium ions and phosphoinositol in the regulation of metabolic processes.
(d) Gene Expression: Replication, Transcription and Translation (Gene expression) Introduction to Biotechnology and Genetic Engineering, Basic principles of Recombinant DNA technology, Pharmaceutical applications. Balance of Catabolic, Anabolic and Amphibolic processes in human metabolism, Acid-Base and Electrolyte Balance in Human body.
PHARMACEUTICAL BIOCHEMISTRY-II
(Laboratory)
Cr. Hr. 01
NOTE:- Practicals of the subject shall be designed from time to time on the basis of the above mentioned theoretical topics and availability of the requirements, e.g. Quantitative analysis of: Carbohydrates – Glucose (reducing sugar) and any other carbohydrate using Benedict and Anthrone method. Amino acids, Peptides and Proteins using Biuret and Ninhydrin (Spectrophotometric) method. Analysis of normal and abnormal components of Urine including Sugar, Uric acid, Bilirubin, Cholesterol and Creatinine.
Recommended Books
1. M N Chaterjea, Medical Biochemistry, Jaypee Brothers Medical Publishers, New Delhi, 2003.
2. Roberk Murray, Daryl K, Granner, Peter A Mayes, Victor W Rodwell Harper’s Biochemistry, Appleton and Lange, Lange Medical Publications, NewYork, 2000.
3. Albert L Lehninger, Principles of Biochemistry, CBS Publisher, Delhi, 1993.
4. Lubert Stryer, Biochemistry, W H Freeman and Company, 2002.
5. Pamela C Champe, Richard A Harvey, Illustrated Biochemistry, J Lippincot Company,
6. Harper’s Biochemistry, Print-Hall, New Jersey, 1996.
7. M Rafiq, Biochemistry, The Caravan Book House, Lahore, 1st Ed.
8. Montogomary, Clinical Chemistry, The C V Mosby Company, 5th Ed.
9. Conn and Stumpf, Outlines of Biochemistry, John Willey & Sons, New York, 5th Ed.,
(Theory)
Cr. Hr. 03
1. Metabolic fate of Biomolecules (Anabolism and Catabolism)
(a) Carbohydrates: Introduction to metabolism, Brief introduction to the digestion and absorption of carbohydrates, Aerobic and anaerobic breakdown of Glucose, Glycolysis, Pentose Phosphate Pathway, Glycogenolysis, Glycogenesis, Gluconeogenesis, Citric acid cycle, Energetics of various metabolic processes.
(b) Lipids: Brief introduction to the digestion and absorption of lipids, Oxidation of fatty acids through รข-oxidation, Biosynthesis of fatty acids, neutral lipids and cholesterol.
(c) Proteins and Amino acids: Brief introduction to the digestion and absorption of proteins and amino acids, Metabolism of essential and non-essential amino acids, Biosynthesis and catabolism of Haemins and porphyrin compounds.
(d) Bioenergetics: Principles of bioenergetics. Electron transport chain and oxidative phosphorylation.
2. Regulation of Metabolic Processes
(a) Role of Vitamins: Physiological role of Fat-soluble (A, D, E and K) and Water-soluble (Thiamin, Riboflavin, Pantothenic acid, Niacin, Pyridoxal phosphate, Biotin Folic acid, Cyanocobalamin – members of B-complex family – and Ascorbic acid), Coenzymes and their role in the regulation of metabolic processes.
(b) Receptor mediated regulation (Hormones): Mechanism of action of hormones, Physiological roles of various hormones, Site of synthesis and target sites of hormones.
(c) Secondary Messengers: Role of cAMP, Calcium ions and phosphoinositol in the regulation of metabolic processes.
(d) Gene Expression: Replication, Transcription and Translation (Gene expression) Introduction to Biotechnology and Genetic Engineering, Basic principles of Recombinant DNA technology, Pharmaceutical applications. Balance of Catabolic, Anabolic and Amphibolic processes in human metabolism, Acid-Base and Electrolyte Balance in Human body.
PHARMACEUTICAL BIOCHEMISTRY-II
(Laboratory)
Cr. Hr. 01
NOTE:- Practicals of the subject shall be designed from time to time on the basis of the above mentioned theoretical topics and availability of the requirements, e.g. Quantitative analysis of: Carbohydrates – Glucose (reducing sugar) and any other carbohydrate using Benedict and Anthrone method. Amino acids, Peptides and Proteins using Biuret and Ninhydrin (Spectrophotometric) method. Analysis of normal and abnormal components of Urine including Sugar, Uric acid, Bilirubin, Cholesterol and Creatinine.
Recommended Books
1. M N Chaterjea, Medical Biochemistry, Jaypee Brothers Medical Publishers, New Delhi, 2003.
2. Roberk Murray, Daryl K, Granner, Peter A Mayes, Victor W Rodwell Harper’s Biochemistry, Appleton and Lange, Lange Medical Publications, NewYork, 2000.
3. Albert L Lehninger, Principles of Biochemistry, CBS Publisher, Delhi, 1993.
4. Lubert Stryer, Biochemistry, W H Freeman and Company, 2002.
5. Pamela C Champe, Richard A Harvey, Illustrated Biochemistry, J Lippincot Company,
6. Harper’s Biochemistry, Print-Hall, New Jersey, 1996.
7. M Rafiq, Biochemistry, The Caravan Book House, Lahore, 1st Ed.
8. Montogomary, Clinical Chemistry, The C V Mosby Company, 5th Ed.
9. Conn and Stumpf, Outlines of Biochemistry, John Willey & Sons, New York, 5th Ed.,
First Professional, Second Semester, Pharmaceutical Organic Chemistry
PHARMACEUTICAL CHEMISTRY (Organic-II)
(Theory)
Cr. Hr. 03
Note: The topics will be taught with special reference to their Pharmaceutical Applications.
1. Stereochemistry: Stereoisomerism, optical isomerism; Molecules with more than one chiral center. Geometrical isomerism, Resolution of racemic mixture. Conformational analysis.
2. Free radicals: Introduction, structure and stability, preparation and properties.
3. General methods of preparations, properties, identification test and pharmaceutical applications of the following classes and their analogues:
Alcohols, Phenols, Ethers, Aldehydes, Ketones, Acids, esters, Amines and Aniline, Lactones, Lactams, Amides, Imides, Diazonium salts.
4. Preparation and properties of medicinally important heterocyclic compounds such as: Pyrrol, Furan, Thiophene, Pyridine, Pyrimidine and Pyrazine.
5. Preparation and properties of heterocyclic compounds in which benzoring is fused with five and six membered ring containing one heteroatom; Indole, Quinoline and Isoquinoline.
PHARMACEUTICAL CHEMISTRY (Organic-II)
(Laboratory)
Cr. Hr. 01
NOTE:- Practicals of the subject shall be designed from time to time on the basis of the above mentioned theoretical topics and availability of the facilities, e.g. Organic Preparations like Benzoic acid, Aspirin, Acetanilide, Iodoform, Nitrophenol, 3-nitrophthalic acid, Benzhydrol, 2, 4-Dinitro-chlorobenzene.
Recommended Books
1. Peter Sykes, A guide Book to Mechanism in Organic Chemistry, Longman, New York, 1st Ed., 1991.
2. E L Eliel, Stereochemistry of Carbon Compounds, Tata McGraw-Hill, New Delhi, 1992.
3. Rehman and M. Younis, Organic Chemistry for B.Sc. students, Ilmi Kitab Khana, Lahore, 1997.
4. L Finar, Organic Chemistry Vol I, Person Education Asia, 6th Ed., New Delhi, 2001.
5. Raj K Bansel, Organic Reaction Mechanism, Tata McGraw-Hill, New Delhi, 1992.
6. Furaiss Brian, Practical Organic Chemistry, 5th Ed., ELBS, London.
7. Sykes A P, Guide Book to Mechanism in Organic Chemistry, 5th Ed., Lonsmen Co, UK, 1970.
8. Roberts J D and Caserio M C, Basic Principles of organic Chemistry, 1990.
9. Naser-ud-Din, Introduction to Stereochemistry, Ghafoor Stationery Mart, Peshawar, 1994.
10. Bhal B S, Text Book of Organic Chemistry, S Chand & Co, New Delhi, 14th Ed., 1995.
(Theory)
Cr. Hr. 03
Note: The topics will be taught with special reference to their Pharmaceutical Applications.
1. Stereochemistry: Stereoisomerism, optical isomerism; Molecules with more than one chiral center. Geometrical isomerism, Resolution of racemic mixture. Conformational analysis.
2. Free radicals: Introduction, structure and stability, preparation and properties.
3. General methods of preparations, properties, identification test and pharmaceutical applications of the following classes and their analogues:
Alcohols, Phenols, Ethers, Aldehydes, Ketones, Acids, esters, Amines and Aniline, Lactones, Lactams, Amides, Imides, Diazonium salts.
4. Preparation and properties of medicinally important heterocyclic compounds such as: Pyrrol, Furan, Thiophene, Pyridine, Pyrimidine and Pyrazine.
5. Preparation and properties of heterocyclic compounds in which benzoring is fused with five and six membered ring containing one heteroatom; Indole, Quinoline and Isoquinoline.
PHARMACEUTICAL CHEMISTRY (Organic-II)
(Laboratory)
Cr. Hr. 01
NOTE:- Practicals of the subject shall be designed from time to time on the basis of the above mentioned theoretical topics and availability of the facilities, e.g. Organic Preparations like Benzoic acid, Aspirin, Acetanilide, Iodoform, Nitrophenol, 3-nitrophthalic acid, Benzhydrol, 2, 4-Dinitro-chlorobenzene.
Recommended Books
1. Peter Sykes, A guide Book to Mechanism in Organic Chemistry, Longman, New York, 1st Ed., 1991.
2. E L Eliel, Stereochemistry of Carbon Compounds, Tata McGraw-Hill, New Delhi, 1992.
3. Rehman and M. Younis, Organic Chemistry for B.Sc. students, Ilmi Kitab Khana, Lahore, 1997.
4. L Finar, Organic Chemistry Vol I, Person Education Asia, 6th Ed., New Delhi, 2001.
5. Raj K Bansel, Organic Reaction Mechanism, Tata McGraw-Hill, New Delhi, 1992.
6. Furaiss Brian, Practical Organic Chemistry, 5th Ed., ELBS, London.
7. Sykes A P, Guide Book to Mechanism in Organic Chemistry, 5th Ed., Lonsmen Co, UK, 1970.
8. Roberts J D and Caserio M C, Basic Principles of organic Chemistry, 1990.
9. Naser-ud-Din, Introduction to Stereochemistry, Ghafoor Stationery Mart, Peshawar, 1994.
10. Bhal B S, Text Book of Organic Chemistry, S Chand & Co, New Delhi, 14th Ed., 1995.
First Professional; First Semester, Mathematics
PHARMACEUTICAL MATHEMATICS
(Theory)
Cr. Hr. 02
1. ALGEBRA:
(a) Sets and Functions: Elementary concepts of sets. Concept of Functions, Domain and Range of a Function. Different types of Functions. Graphical representation of a function. Some applications of Functions.
(b) Solution of Linear and Quadratic Equations. Equations reducible to Quadratic Form. Solution of simultaneous Equations.
(c) Arithmetic, Geometric and Harmonic Progressions. Arithmetic, Geometric and Harmonic Means.
(d) Permutations and combinations.
(e) Binomial Theorem: Simple application.
2. TRIGONOMETRY: Measurement of Angles in Radian and degrees. Definitions of circular functions. Derivation of circular function for simple cases.
3. ANALYTICAL GEOMETRY: Coordinates on point in a plane. Distance between two points in a plane. Locus, Equations of straight line, Equation of Parabola, Circle and Ellips.
4. DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS: Concept of Derivations. Rules of Differentiation. Examples on the evaluation of Derivations. Derivatives of Exponential and Logarithmic Functions, Partial Derivations. Higher Order Derivatives. Maxima & Minima points of Inflections.
5. INTEGRAL CALCULUS: Concept of Integration. Rules of Integrations. Integrations of Algebric and Trignomatric functions by using different techniques.
Recommended Books
1. C H Edvards Jr and David E Penney, Calculus and Analytic Geometry, Prentice-Hall, Inc, A division of Sinon & Schustor Englewood Gliffs, New Jersey 07632, USA, 1995.
2. Ahmed B and Khan M, Mathmactics for Pharmacists, Arsalan Paper Mart, Multan, 1993.
(Theory)
Cr. Hr. 02
1. ALGEBRA:
(a) Sets and Functions: Elementary concepts of sets. Concept of Functions, Domain and Range of a Function. Different types of Functions. Graphical representation of a function. Some applications of Functions.
(b) Solution of Linear and Quadratic Equations. Equations reducible to Quadratic Form. Solution of simultaneous Equations.
(c) Arithmetic, Geometric and Harmonic Progressions. Arithmetic, Geometric and Harmonic Means.
(d) Permutations and combinations.
(e) Binomial Theorem: Simple application.
2. TRIGONOMETRY: Measurement of Angles in Radian and degrees. Definitions of circular functions. Derivation of circular function for simple cases.
3. ANALYTICAL GEOMETRY: Coordinates on point in a plane. Distance between two points in a plane. Locus, Equations of straight line, Equation of Parabola, Circle and Ellips.
4. DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS: Concept of Derivations. Rules of Differentiation. Examples on the evaluation of Derivations. Derivatives of Exponential and Logarithmic Functions, Partial Derivations. Higher Order Derivatives. Maxima & Minima points of Inflections.
5. INTEGRAL CALCULUS: Concept of Integration. Rules of Integrations. Integrations of Algebric and Trignomatric functions by using different techniques.
Recommended Books
1. C H Edvards Jr and David E Penney, Calculus and Analytic Geometry, Prentice-Hall, Inc, A division of Sinon & Schustor Englewood Gliffs, New Jersey 07632, USA, 1995.
2. Ahmed B and Khan M, Mathmactics for Pharmacists, Arsalan Paper Mart, Multan, 1993.
First Professional; First Semester, Anatomy
ANATOMY
(Theory)
Cr. Hr. 03
1. Introduction: Anatomical Terminology: Definition. Cell, tissue, organ system.
2. Cardiovascular System:
(a) Heart: Structure of Heart, Location of Heart, Blood Supply to Heart.
(c) Blood Vessels: Main blood vessels arising & entering the heart. Types of blood vessels with examples.
3. Respiratory System: Name and structures of different parts of respiratory system and their inter-relationship.
4. Elementary System: Name and structure of different parts of elementary system and their inter-relationship.
5. Urinary System: Name and structure of organs of urinarysystem and their inter-relationship.
6. Reproductive System: Male ande Female reproductive systems. Name, structure and association of the organs.
7. Endocrine System:
(a) Pituitary gland, structure and relation to hypothalamus.
(b) Thyroid gland, structure.
(c) Adrenal gland, structure.
8. Nervous System:
Introduction: Cells of Nervous System (Neuron), Accessory cells of NS Organisation of Nervous System:
(a) Central Nervous System: Brain — Meninges (Cerebrum — cerebral Lobes, Ventricals, Cerebellum — Anatomy of Cerebellum, Brain Stem — Mid-Brain, Pons, Medulla Oblongata, Diencephalon, Thalamus, Hypothelamus, Cranial Nerves, Spinal Cord — Meninges. CSF Internal Structure. Sensory and Motor Pathway. Spinal Reflexes.
Peripheral Spinal Nerves.
(b) Autonomic Nervous System: Sympathetic Nervous System and Parasympathetic Nervous System.
Recommended Books
1. Romanes, G J, Cunningham’s Manual of Practical Anatomy. Humphary Kalfom, Oxford, Oxford University Press, London, 3 volumes, 1996.
2. Gray’s Anatomy, Descriptive and Applied. Longman’s Green and Co,
London, 1996.
3. J G Romanes, London, Cunningham’s Textbook of Anatomy. Oxford University Press, 1996.
4. Snell, R.S. Clinical Anatomy, Boston, Little, Brown and Company, 1996.
5. Keith L More and TVN Persaud, Philadelphia, Clinically Oriented Human Anatomy. W B Saunders, 1996.
6. B Grant, A Method of Anatomy, Bailliere Tinal and Co, Ltd, London.
7. W J Hamilton, A textbook of Anatomy, Macmillan and Co, London.
8. R J Last, Anatomy, Regional and Applied, J and A Churchill Ltd,
(Theory)
Cr. Hr. 03
1. Introduction: Anatomical Terminology: Definition. Cell, tissue, organ system.
2. Cardiovascular System:
(a) Heart: Structure of Heart, Location of Heart, Blood Supply to Heart.
(c) Blood Vessels: Main blood vessels arising & entering the heart. Types of blood vessels with examples.
3. Respiratory System: Name and structures of different parts of respiratory system and their inter-relationship.
4. Elementary System: Name and structure of different parts of elementary system and their inter-relationship.
5. Urinary System: Name and structure of organs of urinarysystem and their inter-relationship.
6. Reproductive System: Male ande Female reproductive systems. Name, structure and association of the organs.
7. Endocrine System:
(a) Pituitary gland, structure and relation to hypothalamus.
(b) Thyroid gland, structure.
(c) Adrenal gland, structure.
8. Nervous System:
Introduction: Cells of Nervous System (Neuron), Accessory cells of NS Organisation of Nervous System:
(a) Central Nervous System: Brain — Meninges (Cerebrum — cerebral Lobes, Ventricals, Cerebellum — Anatomy of Cerebellum, Brain Stem — Mid-Brain, Pons, Medulla Oblongata, Diencephalon, Thalamus, Hypothelamus, Cranial Nerves, Spinal Cord — Meninges. CSF Internal Structure. Sensory and Motor Pathway. Spinal Reflexes.
Peripheral Spinal Nerves.
(b) Autonomic Nervous System: Sympathetic Nervous System and Parasympathetic Nervous System.
Recommended Books
1. Romanes, G J, Cunningham’s Manual of Practical Anatomy. Humphary Kalfom, Oxford, Oxford University Press, London, 3 volumes, 1996.
2. Gray’s Anatomy, Descriptive and Applied. Longman’s Green and Co,
London, 1996.
3. J G Romanes, London, Cunningham’s Textbook of Anatomy. Oxford University Press, 1996.
4. Snell, R.S. Clinical Anatomy, Boston, Little, Brown and Company, 1996.
5. Keith L More and TVN Persaud, Philadelphia, Clinically Oriented Human Anatomy. W B Saunders, 1996.
6. B Grant, A Method of Anatomy, Bailliere Tinal and Co, Ltd, London.
7. W J Hamilton, A textbook of Anatomy, Macmillan and Co, London.
8. R J Last, Anatomy, Regional and Applied, J and A Churchill Ltd,
First Professional; First Semester, Physiology and Histology
PHYSIOLOGY & HISTOLOGY-I
(Theory)
Cr. Hr. 03
Physiology
1. BLOOD: Composition of blood (RBC, WBC and Platelets), Functions and Genesis of the formed elements, Fate of Red Blood cells, Jaundice, Reaction of Blood, Blood groups, Rh factors, ESR Blood volume, 80
Functions of Spleen, Blood coagulation, Hemophilia. Anaemias —classification.
2. CIRCULATORY SYSTEM: Properties of the cardiac muscle. Origin and conduction of the heart beat. Cardiac cycle. ECG. Heart sounds.
Cardiac output. Stroke volume and heart rate. Nerve supply of the Heart. Coronary, Pulmonary, and skin circulation. Blood pressure, vasomotor system. Arterial pulse. Venous pulse, capillary circulation. Axon reflex, Triple response. Haemorrhage. Circulatory changes in exercise. Composition and circulate of lymph. Haemorrhage & Shock.
3. RESPIRATORY SYSTEM: Mechanics of respiration. Intrathoracic, intrapulmonary pressure, pulmonary ventilation. Lungs volume and capacities. Composition of Inspired air, expired air and alveolar air, carriage of O2 and CO2 by the blood. Regulation of breathing (Nervous & Chemical control). Respiratory changes in exercise, pneumonias, emphysema and bronchial asthma.
4. DIGESTIVE SYSTEM: Mastication, Deglutation, Digestive juicessaliva, Gastric juice, Pancreatic juice. Bile and intestinal juices; their composition, Functions and mechanism of secreation, Movements of the stomach and intestines. Functions of large intestine. Defecation. Functions of liver and gall bladder.
5. URINARY SYSTEM: Urine formation — composition of urine —GFR Urea clearance. Formation of concentrated and diluted urine.
Histology
1. Introductin of cell: General structure of tissues in different systems of Body.
2. Basic Tissues: Epthelium (classification, shape, distribution and function). Supporting/connective tissue including bones and cartilage. (Classification, Distribution and Function) Muscular Tissue. (Types, distribution and function) Nervous Tissue (neuron and its types Neuroglia — classification and distribution).
3. Gastrointestinal tract: GIT including exocrine organs: Liver, pancreas and Gall Bladder.
4. Respiratory system: Respiratory system including Nasal cavity, Larynx, Trachea, Lung.
5. Cardio vascular System: Heart, Artery, Vein, Lymphatic.
PHYSIOLOGY & HISTOLOGY-I
(Laboratory)
Cr. Hr. 01
NOTE:- Practicals of the subject shall be designed from time to time on the basis of the above mentioned theoretical topics and availability of the facilities.
Physiology
1. Blood: Determination of Haemoglobin (Hb), ESR, RBC Count, WBC Count, DLC (Differential Leucocyte Count), Bleeding Time, Coagulation Time and Determination of blood groups.
2. Respiration: Estimation of vital capacity and its relation to posture and standard vital capacity. Determination of tidal volume. Demonstration of artificial respiration.
3. CVS: Recording of Arterial Pulse, Recording of Arterial Blood Pressure and Electro-cardiogram
Histology (Laboratory)
1. Demonstration of preparation and staining of slides. Histological examination of slides, epithelium, connective tissues, muscle tissues, Organ system – Lung, appendix, Gall bladder, Stomach, Intestine, Heart, Artery, Vein, Lymphatic, etc.
Recommended Books
Physiology
1. Arthur C Guyton, M D, Text Books of Medical Physiology, W B Saunders Company, 9th Ed., 1996.
2. William F Ganong, Review of Medical Physiology, Prentice Hgall international Inc, 17th Ed., 1995.
3. Chandi Charan Chatterjee, Human Physiology, Medical allied agency, 1994.
4. Samson Wright’s Applied Physiology. Revised by Cyril A Keele and Eric Neil.
5. Spence A P and Mason E B, Human Anatomy and Physiology, Beajamin/Cumming Publishing Inc Clifornia, 3rd Ed.
6. Snell R S, Clinical Anatomy for Medical Students, Litle Brown & Co Inc USA, 1992.
Histology
1. Bradbury S, Hewer’s Text Book of Histology, ELBS, London, 1984.
2. Reference Book: Tissues of the body by Legros Clerks. Publisher Oxford at the Clarendon Press, London.
3. Cormack H D, Essential Histology, J B Lippincott Co Philadelphia, 1993.
4. Hammersen F, Histology; color Atlas Of Microscopic Anatomy, Lee & Febijer Co, Pennsylvania, 1985.
(Theory)
Cr. Hr. 03
Physiology
1. BLOOD: Composition of blood (RBC, WBC and Platelets), Functions and Genesis of the formed elements, Fate of Red Blood cells, Jaundice, Reaction of Blood, Blood groups, Rh factors, ESR Blood volume, 80
Functions of Spleen, Blood coagulation, Hemophilia. Anaemias —classification.
2. CIRCULATORY SYSTEM: Properties of the cardiac muscle. Origin and conduction of the heart beat. Cardiac cycle. ECG. Heart sounds.
Cardiac output. Stroke volume and heart rate. Nerve supply of the Heart. Coronary, Pulmonary, and skin circulation. Blood pressure, vasomotor system. Arterial pulse. Venous pulse, capillary circulation. Axon reflex, Triple response. Haemorrhage. Circulatory changes in exercise. Composition and circulate of lymph. Haemorrhage & Shock.
3. RESPIRATORY SYSTEM: Mechanics of respiration. Intrathoracic, intrapulmonary pressure, pulmonary ventilation. Lungs volume and capacities. Composition of Inspired air, expired air and alveolar air, carriage of O2 and CO2 by the blood. Regulation of breathing (Nervous & Chemical control). Respiratory changes in exercise, pneumonias, emphysema and bronchial asthma.
4. DIGESTIVE SYSTEM: Mastication, Deglutation, Digestive juicessaliva, Gastric juice, Pancreatic juice. Bile and intestinal juices; their composition, Functions and mechanism of secreation, Movements of the stomach and intestines. Functions of large intestine. Defecation. Functions of liver and gall bladder.
5. URINARY SYSTEM: Urine formation — composition of urine —GFR Urea clearance. Formation of concentrated and diluted urine.
Histology
1. Introductin of cell: General structure of tissues in different systems of Body.
2. Basic Tissues: Epthelium (classification, shape, distribution and function). Supporting/connective tissue including bones and cartilage. (Classification, Distribution and Function) Muscular Tissue. (Types, distribution and function) Nervous Tissue (neuron and its types Neuroglia — classification and distribution).
3. Gastrointestinal tract: GIT including exocrine organs: Liver, pancreas and Gall Bladder.
4. Respiratory system: Respiratory system including Nasal cavity, Larynx, Trachea, Lung.
5. Cardio vascular System: Heart, Artery, Vein, Lymphatic.
PHYSIOLOGY & HISTOLOGY-I
(Laboratory)
Cr. Hr. 01
NOTE:- Practicals of the subject shall be designed from time to time on the basis of the above mentioned theoretical topics and availability of the facilities.
Physiology
1. Blood: Determination of Haemoglobin (Hb), ESR, RBC Count, WBC Count, DLC (Differential Leucocyte Count), Bleeding Time, Coagulation Time and Determination of blood groups.
2. Respiration: Estimation of vital capacity and its relation to posture and standard vital capacity. Determination of tidal volume. Demonstration of artificial respiration.
3. CVS: Recording of Arterial Pulse, Recording of Arterial Blood Pressure and Electro-cardiogram
Histology (Laboratory)
1. Demonstration of preparation and staining of slides. Histological examination of slides, epithelium, connective tissues, muscle tissues, Organ system – Lung, appendix, Gall bladder, Stomach, Intestine, Heart, Artery, Vein, Lymphatic, etc.
Recommended Books
Physiology
1. Arthur C Guyton, M D, Text Books of Medical Physiology, W B Saunders Company, 9th Ed., 1996.
2. William F Ganong, Review of Medical Physiology, Prentice Hgall international Inc, 17th Ed., 1995.
3. Chandi Charan Chatterjee, Human Physiology, Medical allied agency, 1994.
4. Samson Wright’s Applied Physiology. Revised by Cyril A Keele and Eric Neil.
5. Spence A P and Mason E B, Human Anatomy and Physiology, Beajamin/Cumming Publishing Inc Clifornia, 3rd Ed.
6. Snell R S, Clinical Anatomy for Medical Students, Litle Brown & Co Inc USA, 1992.
Histology
1. Bradbury S, Hewer’s Text Book of Histology, ELBS, London, 1984.
2. Reference Book: Tissues of the body by Legros Clerks. Publisher Oxford at the Clarendon Press, London.
3. Cormack H D, Essential Histology, J B Lippincott Co Philadelphia, 1993.
4. Hammersen F, Histology; color Atlas Of Microscopic Anatomy, Lee & Febijer Co, Pennsylvania, 1985.
First Professional; First Semester, Pharmaceutics
PHARMACEUTICS-I (PHYSICAL PHARMACY-I)
(Theory)
Cr. Hr. 03
1. PHARMACY ORIENTATION:
Introduction and orientation to the Professional of pharmacy in relation to Hospital Pharmacy, Retail pharmacy, Industrial pharmacy, Forensic pharmacy, Pharmaceutical education and research etc.
2. HISTORY AND LITERATURE OF PHARMACY:
(a) A survey of the history of pharmacy through ancient, Greek and Arab periods with special reference to contribution of Muslim scientists to pharmacy and allied sciences.
(b) An introduction of various official books.
3. PHYSIOCHEMICAL PROCESSES:
(a) Precipitation: Process of precipitation and its applications in Pharmacy.
(b) Crystallization: Types of crystals, Mechanism and methods of crystallization and its applications in Pharmacy.
(c) Distillation: Simple, fractional, steam distillation, vacuum distillation, destructive distillation and their applications in Pharmacy.
(d) Miscellaneous Processes: Efflorescence, deliquescence, lyophillization, elutriation, exsiccation, ignition, sublimation, fusion, calcination, adsorption, decantation, evaporation, vaporization, centrifugation, dessication, levigation and trituration.
4. PHYSICO-CHEMICAL PRINCIPLES:
(a) Solutions: Introduction, types, concentration expressions, ideal and real solution, colligative properties, their mathematical derivations and applications in pharmacy, molecular weight determinations, distribution co-efficient and its applications in pharmacy.
(b) Solubilization: Solubility, factors affecting solubility, surfactants, their properties and types. Micelles, their formulation and types.
(c) Ionization, pH, pH indicators, pka, buffers, buffer’s equation, isotonic solutions and their applications in pharmacy.
(d) Hydrolysis, types and protection of drugs against hydrolysis.
(e) Micromeritics: Particle size and shapes, distribution of particles methods of determination of particle size and importance of particle size in Pharmacy.
PHARMACEUTICS-I (PHYSICAL PHARMACY-I)
(Laboratory)
Cr. Hr. 01
NOTE:- Practicals of the subject shall be designed from time to time on the basis of the above mentioned theoretical topics and availability of the facilities, e.g. Experiments to demonstrate some of the physicochemical processes like simple distillation, steam distillation, crystallization and dialysis. Determination of particle size. Preparation of buffer solutions and isotonic solutions.
Recommended Books
1. Martin, Physical Pharmacy, B I Waverly PVT, Delhi, 4th Ed., 1994.
2. Cooper and Gunns, Tutorial Pharmacy, CBS Publishers and Distributors, New Delhi,
3. Bentley’s Pharmaceutics, All India Traveler Book Seller, New Delhi, 1996.
4. Martin P, Bustamante P and Chun, Physical and Chemical Principles of Pharmaceutical Science, AHC, 4th Ed., (1999), New York.
5. Martin AMN, Banker G S and Chun AHC Advances in Pharmaceutical Sciences.
6. Mill C C Casson, N, Rheology of dispress systems. Pergamon Press, New York, 1975.
(Theory)
Cr. Hr. 03
1. PHARMACY ORIENTATION:
Introduction and orientation to the Professional of pharmacy in relation to Hospital Pharmacy, Retail pharmacy, Industrial pharmacy, Forensic pharmacy, Pharmaceutical education and research etc.
2. HISTORY AND LITERATURE OF PHARMACY:
(a) A survey of the history of pharmacy through ancient, Greek and Arab periods with special reference to contribution of Muslim scientists to pharmacy and allied sciences.
(b) An introduction of various official books.
3. PHYSIOCHEMICAL PROCESSES:
(a) Precipitation: Process of precipitation and its applications in Pharmacy.
(b) Crystallization: Types of crystals, Mechanism and methods of crystallization and its applications in Pharmacy.
(c) Distillation: Simple, fractional, steam distillation, vacuum distillation, destructive distillation and their applications in Pharmacy.
(d) Miscellaneous Processes: Efflorescence, deliquescence, lyophillization, elutriation, exsiccation, ignition, sublimation, fusion, calcination, adsorption, decantation, evaporation, vaporization, centrifugation, dessication, levigation and trituration.
4. PHYSICO-CHEMICAL PRINCIPLES:
(a) Solutions: Introduction, types, concentration expressions, ideal and real solution, colligative properties, their mathematical derivations and applications in pharmacy, molecular weight determinations, distribution co-efficient and its applications in pharmacy.
(b) Solubilization: Solubility, factors affecting solubility, surfactants, their properties and types. Micelles, their formulation and types.
(c) Ionization, pH, pH indicators, pka, buffers, buffer’s equation, isotonic solutions and their applications in pharmacy.
(d) Hydrolysis, types and protection of drugs against hydrolysis.
(e) Micromeritics: Particle size and shapes, distribution of particles methods of determination of particle size and importance of particle size in Pharmacy.
PHARMACEUTICS-I (PHYSICAL PHARMACY-I)
(Laboratory)
Cr. Hr. 01
NOTE:- Practicals of the subject shall be designed from time to time on the basis of the above mentioned theoretical topics and availability of the facilities, e.g. Experiments to demonstrate some of the physicochemical processes like simple distillation, steam distillation, crystallization and dialysis. Determination of particle size. Preparation of buffer solutions and isotonic solutions.
Recommended Books
1. Martin, Physical Pharmacy, B I Waverly PVT, Delhi, 4th Ed., 1994.
2. Cooper and Gunns, Tutorial Pharmacy, CBS Publishers and Distributors, New Delhi,
3. Bentley’s Pharmaceutics, All India Traveler Book Seller, New Delhi, 1996.
4. Martin P, Bustamante P and Chun, Physical and Chemical Principles of Pharmaceutical Science, AHC, 4th Ed., (1999), New York.
5. Martin AMN, Banker G S and Chun AHC Advances in Pharmaceutical Sciences.
6. Mill C C Casson, N, Rheology of dispress systems. Pergamon Press, New York, 1975.
First Professional; First Semester, Pharmaceutical Biochemistry
PHARMACEUTICAL BIOCHEMISTRY-I
(Theory)
Cr. Hr. 03
1. GENERAL INTRODUCTION AND BASIC BIOCHEMICAL PRINCIPLES
Role of pharmaceutical biochemistry in the health profession.
Nature of biochemical reactions.
2. BASIC CHEMISTRY OF BIOMOLECULES (Nature, Classification etc.)
(a) Carbohydrates: Chemistry, Classification, Reactions of Carbohydrates, Optical activity, Biological and pharmaceutical importance of carbohydrates.
(b) Lipids: Chemistry of Fatty acids and Lipids, Classification (Saponifiable and non-saponifiable lipids, Simple, Complex and 77 derived lipids), Reactions of Fatty acids and other Lipids, Essential fatty acids, Biological and pharmaceutical importance of lipids.
(c) Proteins and Amino acids: Chemistry, Classification of proteins and amino acids, Reactions of proteins and amino acids, Organizational levels, Macromolecular nature of proteins, Biological and pharmaceutical importance of proteins and amino acids.
(d) Nucleic acids: Chemistry, Types (DNA, RNA, mRNA, tRNA, rRNA), Purine and Pyrimidine bases, Nucelosides, Nucelotides, Structures of nucleic acids, Biological and pharmaceutical importance of nucleic acids.
(e) Vitamins: Chemistry, Classification (Fat-soluble and water-soluble vitamins), Biological and pharmaceutical importance of vitamins.
(f) Hormones: Chemistry, Classification (Proteinous and nonproteinous hormones, amino acid derivatives, steroids), Biological and pharmaceutical importance of hormones.
(g) Enzymes: Chemistry, Classification, Mode of action, Kinetics (Michaelis Menten Equation and some modifications), Inhibition, Activation, Specificity, Allosteric enzymes, Factors affecting the rate of an enzyme-catalyzed reaction, Biological and pharmaceutical
importance, Mechanism of action of some important enzymes (Chymotrypsin, Ribonuclease).
PHARMACEUTICAL BIOCHEMISTRY-I
(Laboratory)
Cr. Hr. 01
NOTE:- Practicals of the subject shall be designed from time to time on the basis of the above mentioned theoretical topics and availability of the facilities, e.g. Qualitative analysis of: Carbohydrates, Amino acids, Peptides and Proteins, Lipids and Sterols (Cholesterol) Bile salts and billirubin, Blood analysis – Sugar, Uric acid, Billirubin, Cholesterol and Creatinine.
Recommended Books
1. M N Chaterjea, Medical Biochemistry, Jaypee Brothers Medical Publishers, New Delhi, 2003.
2. Roberk Murray, Daryl K, Granner, Peter A Mayes, Victor W Rodwell Harper’s Biochemistry, Appleton and Lange, Lange Medical Publications, NewYork, 2000.
3. Albert L Lehninger Principles of Biochemistry, CBS Publisher, Delhi, 1993.
4. Lubert Stryer, Biochemistry, W H Freeman and Company, 2002.
5. Pamela C Champe, Richard A Harvey, Illustrated Biochemistry, J Lippincot Company, 1994.
6. M Rafiq, Biochemistry, The Carvan Book House, Lahore, 1st Ed.
7. Montogomary, Clinical Chemistry, The C V Mosby Company, 5th Ed.
8. Student's Companion to Stryer's Biochemistry by Lubert Stryer
(Theory)
Cr. Hr. 03
1. GENERAL INTRODUCTION AND BASIC BIOCHEMICAL PRINCIPLES
Role of pharmaceutical biochemistry in the health profession.
Nature of biochemical reactions.
2. BASIC CHEMISTRY OF BIOMOLECULES (Nature, Classification etc.)
(a) Carbohydrates: Chemistry, Classification, Reactions of Carbohydrates, Optical activity, Biological and pharmaceutical importance of carbohydrates.
(b) Lipids: Chemistry of Fatty acids and Lipids, Classification (Saponifiable and non-saponifiable lipids, Simple, Complex and 77 derived lipids), Reactions of Fatty acids and other Lipids, Essential fatty acids, Biological and pharmaceutical importance of lipids.
(c) Proteins and Amino acids: Chemistry, Classification of proteins and amino acids, Reactions of proteins and amino acids, Organizational levels, Macromolecular nature of proteins, Biological and pharmaceutical importance of proteins and amino acids.
(d) Nucleic acids: Chemistry, Types (DNA, RNA, mRNA, tRNA, rRNA), Purine and Pyrimidine bases, Nucelosides, Nucelotides, Structures of nucleic acids, Biological and pharmaceutical importance of nucleic acids.
(e) Vitamins: Chemistry, Classification (Fat-soluble and water-soluble vitamins), Biological and pharmaceutical importance of vitamins.
(f) Hormones: Chemistry, Classification (Proteinous and nonproteinous hormones, amino acid derivatives, steroids), Biological and pharmaceutical importance of hormones.
(g) Enzymes: Chemistry, Classification, Mode of action, Kinetics (Michaelis Menten Equation and some modifications), Inhibition, Activation, Specificity, Allosteric enzymes, Factors affecting the rate of an enzyme-catalyzed reaction, Biological and pharmaceutical
importance, Mechanism of action of some important enzymes (Chymotrypsin, Ribonuclease).
PHARMACEUTICAL BIOCHEMISTRY-I
(Laboratory)
Cr. Hr. 01
NOTE:- Practicals of the subject shall be designed from time to time on the basis of the above mentioned theoretical topics and availability of the facilities, e.g. Qualitative analysis of: Carbohydrates, Amino acids, Peptides and Proteins, Lipids and Sterols (Cholesterol) Bile salts and billirubin, Blood analysis – Sugar, Uric acid, Billirubin, Cholesterol and Creatinine.
Recommended Books
1. M N Chaterjea, Medical Biochemistry, Jaypee Brothers Medical Publishers, New Delhi, 2003.
2. Roberk Murray, Daryl K, Granner, Peter A Mayes, Victor W Rodwell Harper’s Biochemistry, Appleton and Lange, Lange Medical Publications, NewYork, 2000.
3. Albert L Lehninger Principles of Biochemistry, CBS Publisher, Delhi, 1993.
4. Lubert Stryer, Biochemistry, W H Freeman and Company, 2002.
5. Pamela C Champe, Richard A Harvey, Illustrated Biochemistry, J Lippincot Company, 1994.
6. M Rafiq, Biochemistry, The Carvan Book House, Lahore, 1st Ed.
7. Montogomary, Clinical Chemistry, The C V Mosby Company, 5th Ed.
8. Student's Companion to Stryer's Biochemistry by Lubert Stryer
First Professional; First Semester, Pharmaceutical Chemistry
PHARMACEUTICAL CHEMISTRY-I (ORGANIC-I)
[Theory]
Cr. Hr. 03
Note: The topics will be taught with special reference to their Pharmaceutical Applications.
1. BASIC CONCEPTS: Conjugation, hyperconjugation, steric effect, inductive effect, mesomeric effect, hydrogen bonding, Theory of resonance. Effect of structure on reactivity of compounds. Tautomerism of carbonyl compounds.
2. NUCLEOPHILIC AND ELECTROPHILIC SUBSTITUTION REACTION IN ALIPHATIC AND AROMATIC SYSTEMS.
3. ORIENTATION IN ELECTROPHILIC SUBSTITUTION REACTIONS ON BENZENE RING.
4. ORGANIC REACTIONS: Baeyer-Villiger oxidation; Diels Alder reaction; Grignard’s reaction, Metal hydride reduction and Wolf Krishner reduction, Friedel Craft’s reaction, Perkin reaction, Cannizzaro reaction, Wolf Kishner reduction.
5. CARBONIUM ION REARRANGEMENTS & THEIR STABILITY: Pinacol-pinacolone, Wagner-Meerwein, Wolf, Hofmann and Beckmann rearrangements.
6. CARBANIONS & THEIR STABILITY: Condensation reaction (Aldol condensation; Favorskii rearrangement; Witting reaction).
PHARMACEUTICAL CHEMISTRY-I (ORGANIC-I)
[Laboratory]
Cr. Hr. 01
NOTE:- Practicals of the subject shall be designed from time to time on the basis of the above mentioned theoretical topics and availability of the facilities, e.g. Organic analysis: Identification of unknown simple organic compounds.
Recommended Books
1. Peter Sykes, A Guide Book to Mechanism in Organic Chemistry, Longman, New York, 1st Ed., 1991.
2. E L Eliel, Stereochemistry of Carbon Compounds, Tata MacGraw- Hill, New Delhi, 1992.
3. Rehman and M Younis, Organic Chemistry for B.Sc. students, Ilmi Kitab Khana, Lahore, 1997
4. L Finar, Organic Chemistry Vol I, Person Education Asia, 6th Ed., New Delhi, 2001.
5. Raj K Bansel, Organic Reaction Mechanism, Tata MacGraw-Hill, New Delhi, 1992.
6. Furaiss Brian, Practical Organic Chemistry, 5th Ed., ELBS, London.
7. Sykes A P, Guide Book to Mechanism in Organic Chemistry, 5th Ed., Lonsmen Co, UK, 1970.
8. Roberts J D and Caserio M C, Basic Principles of Organic Chemistry, 1990.
9. Naser-ud-Din, Introduction to Stereochemistry, Ghafoor Stationary Mart, Peshwar, 1994.
10. Bhal B S, Text Book of Organic Chemistry, S Chand & Co. New Delhi, 14th Ed., 1995.
[Theory]
Cr. Hr. 03
Note: The topics will be taught with special reference to their Pharmaceutical Applications.
1. BASIC CONCEPTS: Conjugation, hyperconjugation, steric effect, inductive effect, mesomeric effect, hydrogen bonding, Theory of resonance. Effect of structure on reactivity of compounds. Tautomerism of carbonyl compounds.
2. NUCLEOPHILIC AND ELECTROPHILIC SUBSTITUTION REACTION IN ALIPHATIC AND AROMATIC SYSTEMS.
3. ORIENTATION IN ELECTROPHILIC SUBSTITUTION REACTIONS ON BENZENE RING.
4. ORGANIC REACTIONS: Baeyer-Villiger oxidation; Diels Alder reaction; Grignard’s reaction, Metal hydride reduction and Wolf Krishner reduction, Friedel Craft’s reaction, Perkin reaction, Cannizzaro reaction, Wolf Kishner reduction.
5. CARBONIUM ION REARRANGEMENTS & THEIR STABILITY: Pinacol-pinacolone, Wagner-Meerwein, Wolf, Hofmann and Beckmann rearrangements.
6. CARBANIONS & THEIR STABILITY: Condensation reaction (Aldol condensation; Favorskii rearrangement; Witting reaction).
PHARMACEUTICAL CHEMISTRY-I (ORGANIC-I)
[Laboratory]
Cr. Hr. 01
NOTE:- Practicals of the subject shall be designed from time to time on the basis of the above mentioned theoretical topics and availability of the facilities, e.g. Organic analysis: Identification of unknown simple organic compounds.
Recommended Books
1. Peter Sykes, A Guide Book to Mechanism in Organic Chemistry, Longman, New York, 1st Ed., 1991.
2. E L Eliel, Stereochemistry of Carbon Compounds, Tata MacGraw- Hill, New Delhi, 1992.
3. Rehman and M Younis, Organic Chemistry for B.Sc. students, Ilmi Kitab Khana, Lahore, 1997
4. L Finar, Organic Chemistry Vol I, Person Education Asia, 6th Ed., New Delhi, 2001.
5. Raj K Bansel, Organic Reaction Mechanism, Tata MacGraw-Hill, New Delhi, 1992.
6. Furaiss Brian, Practical Organic Chemistry, 5th Ed., ELBS, London.
7. Sykes A P, Guide Book to Mechanism in Organic Chemistry, 5th Ed., Lonsmen Co, UK, 1970.
8. Roberts J D and Caserio M C, Basic Principles of Organic Chemistry, 1990.
9. Naser-ud-Din, Introduction to Stereochemistry, Ghafoor Stationary Mart, Peshwar, 1994.
10. Bhal B S, Text Book of Organic Chemistry, S Chand & Co. New Delhi, 14th Ed., 1995.
Monday, February 28, 2011
hCG diet
Introduction:
hCG is the abbreviated form of human chronic gonadotropin (or gonadotrophin). It is actually a pregnancy hormone that causes the production of progesterone (hormone of the ovary responsible to prepare the womb for ovum which is fertilized) and estrogen (hormone produced in ovaries and responsible for female secondary sexual characteristics) required for maintaining the pregnancy.
hCG diet was found to be a weight loss diet having with low calories.
hCG diet dangers:
No potential side effects are found.
History:
Dr. A .Simeons firstly described this diet as a treament of Obesity in 1954. Use of hCG for treating the obesity is gaining popularity again. hCG is available, at this time, in the form of sublingual tablets and injectables. Injectable hCG diet is helpful in giving the proper response but the sublingual hCG has been found of no use.
Another study by Shetty in 1977 has found that hCG has found no hormonal or chemical changes in the body relating to circumferential measurements and skinfold thickness.
hCG is the abbreviated form of human chronic gonadotropin (or gonadotrophin). It is actually a pregnancy hormone that causes the production of progesterone (hormone of the ovary responsible to prepare the womb for ovum which is fertilized) and estrogen (hormone produced in ovaries and responsible for female secondary sexual characteristics) required for maintaining the pregnancy.
hCG diet dangers:
No potential side effects are found.
History:
Dr. A .Simeons firstly described this diet as a treament of Obesity in 1954. Use of hCG for treating the obesity is gaining popularity again. hCG is available, at this time, in the form of sublingual tablets and injectables. Injectable hCG diet is helpful in giving the proper response but the sublingual hCG has been found of no use.
Another study by Shetty in 1977 has found that hCG has found no hormonal or chemical changes in the body relating to circumferential measurements and skinfold thickness.
Now it has been established that hCG diet is not helpful in treating the obesity as is represented by the meta-analytic review of 1995 in British Journal of clinical pharmacology as was found in the Simeons method of research. Reports in favour of Simeons method of hCG diet research has also been declined very much after this review. It is said that the amount of protein was lower than the normal level for volunteers or patients. But at the same time, no reports have been found that hCG injections are harmful.
Uses:
References:
American College of Bariatric Physicians. Position statement: Use of HCG in the treatment of obesity. Approved Dec 2009.
Shetty, K. R.; Kalkhoff, R. K.; (1977), Human Chorionic Gonadotropin (HCG) Treatment of Obesity, Archives of Inter Medicine, 137(2):151-155.
Shetty, K. R.; Kalkhoff, R. K.; (1977), Human Chorionic Gonadotropin (HCG) Treatment of Obesity, Archives of Inter Medicine, 137(2):151-155.
Lose a pound a day? HCG dieters say it's possible
The HCG diet claims to be natural, promises to help you lose a pound or more a day and even discourages exercise.
But critics and medical doctors say it can be also dangerous.
Further Reading:http://www.kfvs12.com/Global/story.asp?S=14030656
But critics and medical doctors say it can be also dangerous.
Further Reading:http://www.kfvs12.com/Global/story.asp?S=14030656
Healthbeat Report: The HCG Diet
There's been a lot of hype behind the HCG diet. It's said to be the secret weapon for many Hollywood stars. The diet has been around since the 1950s and every couple of years it seems to make a comeback.
The diet's popularity is on the rise again with renewed chatter on the Internet and TV shows, but critics warn it's a fraud and could be risky.
Further Reading:http://abclocal.go.com/wls/story?section=news/health&id=7979285
The diet's popularity is on the rise again with renewed chatter on the Internet and TV shows, but critics warn it's a fraud and could be risky.
Further Reading:http://abclocal.go.com/wls/story?section=news/health&id=7979285
HCG Diet: The New Miracle Weight Loss
HCG Diet plan claims to help you lose 1-2 pounds per day on a strict 500 calorie diet plan. HCG is a hormone that is produced in pregnancy and used by male athletes to increase testosterone production in the testes.
Further Reading:http://newstabulous.com/hcg-diet-the-new-miracle-weight-loss-plan/3033/
Further Reading:http://newstabulous.com/hcg-diet-the-new-miracle-weight-loss-plan/3033/
Quest to Lose Weight Fast With HCG Diet, Thinner-U Increases
A huge controversy began earlier this week after the HCG diet was featured on The Doctor Oz Show.
Instead of curbing America’s fascination with the controversial HCG diet, after hearing the benefits and pitfalls discussed by Dr. Oz and his guests, interest in the HCG diet and HCG drops surged. Thousands of people began trying to locate HCG drops for sale, even after Dr. Oz warned them not to.
Further Reading:
http://newsfuzion.com/2011/02/26/quest-to-lose-weight-fast-with-hcg-diet-thinner-u-increases/
Instead of curbing America’s fascination with the controversial HCG diet, after hearing the benefits and pitfalls discussed by Dr. Oz and his guests, interest in the HCG diet and HCG drops surged. Thousands of people began trying to locate HCG drops for sale, even after Dr. Oz warned them not to.
Further Reading:
http://newsfuzion.com/2011/02/26/quest-to-lose-weight-fast-with-hcg-diet-thinner-u-increases/
The hCG Diet Myth: Why Would a Pregnancy Hormone Make You Skinny?
Short for human chorionic gonadotrophin, hCG is the hormone secreted by the embryo that makes a pregnancy test positive. Since the 1950s, certain doctors have promoted hCG injections as the key to hunger-free weight loss — and now, the diet is taking off on the Web. This, despite 14 clinical trials showing that hCG has no effect on weight.
Further Reading:
http://healthland.time.com/2011/02/25/debunking-the-hcg-diet-myth-why-would-a-pregnancy-hormone-make-you-skinny/
Further Reading:
http://healthland.time.com/2011/02/25/debunking-the-hcg-diet-myth-why-would-a-pregnancy-hormone-make-you-skinny/
HCG Diet Ineffective, Dangerous, Say All But 1 Doctor
Doctors are slamming the popular HCG diet for several reasons: low-calorie diets are ineffective for long-term weight loss, and sometimes can also be dangerous; HCG appears to work as well as placebos; and homeopathic HCG has too low a concentration of the hormone to be effective.
Further Reading:http://www.opposingviews.com/i/hcg-diet-ineffective-dangerous-say-all-but-1-doctor
Further Reading:http://www.opposingviews.com/i/hcg-diet-ineffective-dangerous-say-all-but-1-doctor
Sunday, February 27, 2011
Drug discovery
Introduction:
Drug discovery is the research process of designing and discovering a new drug for the required biological responses in animals resulting in desired effects in human beings. The process of drug discovery is done in different fields like Pharmacology, Biotechnology and medicine.
In old times, drug was discovered either
1. checking the ingredients from conventional or known remedies or
2. by accidental discoveries
But now study is done even the minutest molecular and physiological level so that the better drugs, targeting the specific receptors, are developed. Drug discovery is one the most lengthy and expensive processes in Pharmaceutical and related fields. One of the most important process for Drug discovery is High-Throughput screening.
Stages for an approved new molecular entity:
A new molecular entity passes through the following stages:
1. Drug Discovery
a. Identification
b. Synthesis
c. Characterization
d. Screening
e. Assays for therapeutic effectiveness
2. Drug Development or Preclinical Development
3. Clinical Trials
a. Phase 0
b. Phase 1
c. Phase 2
d. Phase 3
e. Phase 4
Challenges to Overcome in Drug Discovery:
Following changes are usually considered in Drug Discovery:
1. Effective targeting of the drug
2. Drug must be cost effective
3. Patient Compliance
4. Prevention of drug from degradation
5. Extended life of the drug product
Drawbacks in Drug Discovery and its removal:
This process is
- lengthy,
- difficult,
- expensive and
- Inefficient having low rate of new drug discovery.
Nowadays, the knowledge of human genome has very benefacial effects on the drug discovery as it has removed many steps of drug discovery including the study of new drug targets.
Drug discovery is the research process of designing and discovering a new drug for the required biological responses in animals resulting in desired effects in human beings. The process of drug discovery is done in different fields like Pharmacology, Biotechnology and medicine.
In old times, drug was discovered either
1. checking the ingredients from conventional or known remedies or
2. by accidental discoveries
But now study is done even the minutest molecular and physiological level so that the better drugs, targeting the specific receptors, are developed. Drug discovery is one the most lengthy and expensive processes in Pharmaceutical and related fields. One of the most important process for Drug discovery is High-Throughput screening.
Stages for an approved new molecular entity:
A new molecular entity passes through the following stages:
1. Drug Discovery
a. Identification
b. Synthesis
c. Characterization
d. Screening
e. Assays for therapeutic effectiveness
2. Drug Development or Preclinical Development
3. Clinical Trials
a. Phase 0
b. Phase 1
c. Phase 2
d. Phase 3
e. Phase 4
Challenges to Overcome in Drug Discovery:
Following changes are usually considered in Drug Discovery:
1. Effective targeting of the drug
2. Drug must be cost effective
3. Patient Compliance
4. Prevention of drug from degradation
5. Extended life of the drug product
Drawbacks in Drug Discovery and its removal:
This process is
- lengthy,
- difficult,
- expensive and
- Inefficient having low rate of new drug discovery.
Nowadays, the knowledge of human genome has very benefacial effects on the drug discovery as it has removed many steps of drug discovery including the study of new drug targets.
New laser-based tool can better diagnose melanoma
In a recent study, Duke University researchers have disclosed that a brand new, laser-based tool could help doctors in better diagnosing melanoma; thereby underscoring the potential to save many lives.
Further Reading:
http://topnews.net.nz/content/212249-new-laser-based-tool-can-better-diagnose-melanoma
Further Reading:
http://topnews.net.nz/content/212249-new-laser-based-tool-can-better-diagnose-melanoma
Mindfulness key to coping with pain, suffering
Mindfulness can help people cope with both pain and suffering, says a health expert. It is a consciousness focused on the here and now, rather than brooding over past failures or future longings.
Further Reading:
http://www.onlinenews.com.pk/details.php?id=175688
Further Reading:
http://www.onlinenews.com.pk/details.php?id=175688
Brain performance improves with a cup of tea
It has been found that drinking a cup of tea helps in improving the performance of the brain and decreases tiredness.
Further reading:
http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/life-style/health-fitness/health/A-cup-of-tea-improves-brain-power/articleshow/7585748.cms
Further reading:
http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/life-style/health-fitness/health/A-cup-of-tea-improves-brain-power/articleshow/7585748.cms
Analysis
Analysis: It refers to the separation of the components of a substance and the determination of the chemical constituents of the substance or its physical properties.
Allogeneic
Allogeneic: In transplantation, it refers to different genetic constitutions within the same species so that the tissues become incompatible upon transplantation.
Agranulocytosis
Agranulocytosis: It is a blood disorder in which there is an abnormal reduction in white blood cells and change in throat or skin due to some illness.
Saturday, February 26, 2011
Ceramide
Ceramides belong to a class of lipid molecules and are the principal component of intercellular lipids.
It is also found in the skin.
Structure:
Uses:
It is an important component in the cohesion of the cells of the skin i.e. holds the cells of the skin in a smooth and firm structure. Ceramide is used as an emollient in the products of hair care.
It is also found in the skin.
Structure:
Uses:
It is an important component in the cohesion of the cells of the skin i.e. holds the cells of the skin in a smooth and firm structure. Ceramide is used as an emollient in the products of hair care.
Liposome
Introduction:
Liposome is the type of extremely small artificial sacks made up of lipid monolayers or the layers can be more than one.
The outer layers are very reactive chemically and helps in the coupling of antigens, nucleic acid probes, cell recpetors and antibodies.
Size:
Liposomes may range from 50 nm to 800 nm.
Liposome is the type of extremely small artificial sacks made up of lipid monolayers or the layers can be more than one.
The outer layers are very reactive chemically and helps in the coupling of antigens, nucleic acid probes, cell recpetors and antibodies.
Size:
Liposomes may range from 50 nm to 800 nm.
Afferent
Afferent:
1. From the outer body to the brain or spinal cord.
2. Inflow towards the center which in the case of nerves is carrying of impulses from the other body parts towards the brain or spinal cord and in the case of blood vessels is carrying of blood towards an organ.
1. From the outer body to the brain or spinal cord.
2. Inflow towards the center which in the case of nerves is carrying of impulses from the other body parts towards the brain or spinal cord and in the case of blood vessels is carrying of blood towards an organ.
Adrenergic receptors
Adrenergic receptors: These are nerve endings of effector tissues, most of which can be excited by norepinephrine and/or epinephrine and adrenergic drugs.
Adrenergic amines
Adrenergic amines: Those agents which have similar activity as that induced by adrenergic nerve activity for example epinephrine and ephedrine.
Adrenergic
Adrenergic: Those fibers or neurons that produce or activate norepinephrine and related agents.
Adenylyl cyclase
Adenylyl cyclase: It is enzyme acting on ATP to form 3, 5-cyclic AMP plus pyrophosphate. It is an important step in the regulation and formation of second messengers. Adenylyl cyclase is the former name for adenylate cyclase.
Action potential
Action potential: It is a temporary difference of electrical potential between inside and outside of membrane of a cell during activity i.e. during transmission of nerve impulse.
Acetic Acid
Acetic acid: CH3COOH. It is a colorless product obtained by the oxidation of ethanol and destructive distillation of the wood. It has a pungent odor and is the main constituent of vinegar. It is used in the manufacture of many products such as drugs, dyes, plastics and fibers. It is used locally as counterirritant and as a reagent. It is also known as ethanoic acid.
Lyophilization
It is also referred to as “freeze-drying”, “sublimation-drying” or “cryodesiccation”.
Definition:
It is the process of isolation of a substance (solid) from solution by freezing it and evaporating the ice under vacuum (by sublimation).
Process of lyophilization:
In the process of lyophilization, water or any other solvent is removed from a frozen solution by sublimation caused by reduction of the temperature and pressure to values at a lower level than the triple point.
Under the application of these conditions, heat applied is used as latent heat and the ice converts directly to the vapor state (by the process of sublimation).
Practically, the following features must be taken into account.
Temperature and pressure are necessary to be at a lower level than the triple point and it is usually -10 ยบC to -30 ยบC and 10 N/m2 to 30 N/m2 respectively. To achieve this pressure, the vapors must be removed or else the vapor pressure will affect this pressure.
Stages of the freeze-drying process:
Following stages are found in lyophilization:
1. Freezing
2. Vacuum
3. Primary drying
4. Secondary drying
5. Packaging
Freezing:
The material is usually frozen before the application of vacuum. A number of methods are used in freezing of the material.
In shell freezing, the bottle is partially filled with the material to be frozen. It is placed in a refrigerator almost horizontally and rotated slowly. In this way the material freezes along side the walls of the bottle and resulting in large area for heat transfer and sublimation.
In vertical spin freezing, small crystals of ice are produced. In this method, the bottles are first placed in a moderate coldness and rotated quickly in vertical position in a constant flow of very cold air. This result in the liquid becoming super cooled and freezing occurs rapidly.
Vacuum:
Vacuum pumps are used to create the vacuum and reducing the pressure sufficiently.
On small scale, two-stage rotary pumps are used while on large scale ejector pumps are used.
Primary drying:
During the primary drying, two important processes are followed i.e. (1) vapors are removed by applying (2) the latent heat of sublimation. The apparatus similar to the vacuum oven can be used.
Heat transfer is crucial in this process as the extra heat may cause the material to melt and less heat may cause the process to be prolonged or no sublimation. So, heat transfer must be controlled.
Vapor removal is important to reduce a change in pressure. On the small scale, vapor is removed by using desiccant such as phosphorus pentoxide or by using a small condenser. And on the large scale condensation is helpful to remove vapors and by using pumps such ejector pumps.
The rate of drying in lyophilization is very low showing that the rate of drying of ice is about 1 mm depth per hour.
Secondary drying:
The primary drying may leave about 0-5 % of moisture in the solid, which can be removed by secondary drying process.
In this method, temperature may raise above 0 ยบC to break any type of physico-chemical interactions between the frozen material and the water molecules resulting in the removal of the moisture.
High temperature can be used, as the risk of hydrolysis is negligible in the secondary drying because the secondary drying is an ordinary vacuum drying phase.
Packaging:
After the completion of freeze-drying process, vacuum is usually removed by the application of an inert gas such as nitrogen before the material is tightly closed. Great care is needed in the packaging of freeze dried products. Containers must be tightly closed to protect from moisture.
Freeze-drying equipment:
There are three types of freeze-dryers:
1. Rotary evaporators
2. Manifold freeze-dryers
3. Tray freeze-dryers
Uses:
Aqueous solutions and/or dispersions of oxygen-sensitive or heat-sensitive drugs, biologicals such as blood products (such as peptides, proteins), antibiotics (other than penicillin), vaccines (such as BCG, yellow fever, smallpox) and enzyme preparations (such as hyaluronidase) and microbiological cultures are usually freeze-dried.
After freeze-drying and packing the material in a vial, the material can be stored, shipped and reconstituted later to the primary form for the use as injection.
It increases the shelf life of some of the pharmaceuticals for many years.
Advantages of lyophilization:
1. Decomposition and hydrolysis of the product is reduced as a result of prevention of the enzyme action due to very low temperature.
2. Oxidation is reduced as a result of high vacuum and less air.
3. The product is light and porous as the original solution was frozen and there is no incorporation of extra materials.
4. As the product is porous so this results in more solubility.
Disadvantages of lyophilization:
1. The high porous nature (results in more solubility) and highly dried state results in a highly hygroscopic product. So special conditions are required up to packaging.
2. The process is very slow and requires expensive instruments and plants.
Definition:
It is the process of isolation of a substance (solid) from solution by freezing it and evaporating the ice under vacuum (by sublimation).
Process of lyophilization:
In the process of lyophilization, water or any other solvent is removed from a frozen solution by sublimation caused by reduction of the temperature and pressure to values at a lower level than the triple point.
Under the application of these conditions, heat applied is used as latent heat and the ice converts directly to the vapor state (by the process of sublimation).
Practically, the following features must be taken into account.
Temperature and pressure are necessary to be at a lower level than the triple point and it is usually -10 ยบC to -30 ยบC and 10 N/m2 to 30 N/m2 respectively. To achieve this pressure, the vapors must be removed or else the vapor pressure will affect this pressure.
Stages of the freeze-drying process:
Following stages are found in lyophilization:
1. Freezing
2. Vacuum
3. Primary drying
4. Secondary drying
5. Packaging
Freezing:
The material is usually frozen before the application of vacuum. A number of methods are used in freezing of the material.
In shell freezing, the bottle is partially filled with the material to be frozen. It is placed in a refrigerator almost horizontally and rotated slowly. In this way the material freezes along side the walls of the bottle and resulting in large area for heat transfer and sublimation.
In vertical spin freezing, small crystals of ice are produced. In this method, the bottles are first placed in a moderate coldness and rotated quickly in vertical position in a constant flow of very cold air. This result in the liquid becoming super cooled and freezing occurs rapidly.
Vacuum:
Vacuum pumps are used to create the vacuum and reducing the pressure sufficiently.
On small scale, two-stage rotary pumps are used while on large scale ejector pumps are used.
Primary drying:
During the primary drying, two important processes are followed i.e. (1) vapors are removed by applying (2) the latent heat of sublimation. The apparatus similar to the vacuum oven can be used.
Heat transfer is crucial in this process as the extra heat may cause the material to melt and less heat may cause the process to be prolonged or no sublimation. So, heat transfer must be controlled.
Vapor removal is important to reduce a change in pressure. On the small scale, vapor is removed by using desiccant such as phosphorus pentoxide or by using a small condenser. And on the large scale condensation is helpful to remove vapors and by using pumps such ejector pumps.
The rate of drying in lyophilization is very low showing that the rate of drying of ice is about 1 mm depth per hour.
Secondary drying:
The primary drying may leave about 0-5 % of moisture in the solid, which can be removed by secondary drying process.
In this method, temperature may raise above 0 ยบC to break any type of physico-chemical interactions between the frozen material and the water molecules resulting in the removal of the moisture.
High temperature can be used, as the risk of hydrolysis is negligible in the secondary drying because the secondary drying is an ordinary vacuum drying phase.
Packaging:
After the completion of freeze-drying process, vacuum is usually removed by the application of an inert gas such as nitrogen before the material is tightly closed. Great care is needed in the packaging of freeze dried products. Containers must be tightly closed to protect from moisture.
Freeze-drying equipment:
There are three types of freeze-dryers:
1. Rotary evaporators
2. Manifold freeze-dryers
3. Tray freeze-dryers
Uses:
Aqueous solutions and/or dispersions of oxygen-sensitive or heat-sensitive drugs, biologicals such as blood products (such as peptides, proteins), antibiotics (other than penicillin), vaccines (such as BCG, yellow fever, smallpox) and enzyme preparations (such as hyaluronidase) and microbiological cultures are usually freeze-dried.
After freeze-drying and packing the material in a vial, the material can be stored, shipped and reconstituted later to the primary form for the use as injection.
It increases the shelf life of some of the pharmaceuticals for many years.
Advantages of lyophilization:
1. Decomposition and hydrolysis of the product is reduced as a result of prevention of the enzyme action due to very low temperature.
2. Oxidation is reduced as a result of high vacuum and less air.
3. The product is light and porous as the original solution was frozen and there is no incorporation of extra materials.
4. As the product is porous so this results in more solubility.
Disadvantages of lyophilization:
1. The high porous nature (results in more solubility) and highly dried state results in a highly hygroscopic product. So special conditions are required up to packaging.
2. The process is very slow and requires expensive instruments and plants.
Statistical Quality Control in Pharmaceutics
Definition:
Statistical quality control (SQC)is defined as:
“The monitoring of quality by application of statistical method in all stages of production.”
Explanation:
Statistical methods of investigation are based on the theory of probability.
• Type of measurement
• Sampling techniques
• Design of Experiments
• Type of Sample distribution
The procedure consists of:
• Proper sampling of product
• Determining quality variations of the sample
• Making inferences to the entire batch under investigation from the observed data
• Once the characteristic data pattern of a process has been determined, the pattern can be utilized to predict the limits within which future data can be expected to fall as a matter of chance, and to determine when significant variations in the process have taken place.
Data Analysis:
Data can be analyzed by using appropriate method of analysis:
t-test:
t-test for comparison of two populations. T-value is calculated and from t-value the P-value is noted from the table:
If
P>0.05; test is non-significant
And if
P<0.05; test is significant.
ANOVA:
It means analysis of variance and is used for comparison of more than 2 parameters.
Objectives:
The objective is to determine whether the major source of observed variations is by chance or assignable.
Types of variations:
Chance variations:
These variations are inevitable because any program of production and inspection has its own unique chance causes of variations which can not be controlled or eliminated and often cannot be identified.
Assignable variations:
These variations can usually be detected and corrected by statistical techniques. Assignable variations are usually caused by machine or a specific batch of production or a container.
Thus the use of SQC permits the:
• Evaluation of magnitude of chance variation of product quality.
• Detection of assignable variations of product quality by means of QC charts.
Statistical quality control (SQC)is defined as:
“The monitoring of quality by application of statistical method in all stages of production.”
Explanation:
Statistical methods of investigation are based on the theory of probability.
It relates to the characteristic of product from both qualitative and quantitative point of views to meet the established standards.
Uses:
It has been used to serve:
• As a basis for improved evaluation of materials through more representative sampling technique
• As a means of achieving sharper control in certain manufacturing processes
• To provide logical approach to variations
Selection:
Selection of appropriate method depends on:• Type of measurement
• Sampling techniques
• Design of Experiments
• Type of Sample distribution
Procedure:
The procedure consists of:
• Proper sampling of product
• Determining quality variations of the sample
• Making inferences to the entire batch under investigation from the observed data
• Once the characteristic data pattern of a process has been determined, the pattern can be utilized to predict the limits within which future data can be expected to fall as a matter of chance, and to determine when significant variations in the process have taken place.
Data Analysis:
Data can be analyzed by using appropriate method of analysis:
t-test:
t-test for comparison of two populations. T-value is calculated and from t-value the P-value is noted from the table:
If
P>0.05; test is non-significant
And if
P<0.05; test is significant.
ANOVA:
It means analysis of variance and is used for comparison of more than 2 parameters.
The objective is to determine whether the major source of observed variations is by chance or assignable.
Types of variations:
Chance variations:
These variations are inevitable because any program of production and inspection has its own unique chance causes of variations which can not be controlled or eliminated and often cannot be identified.
Assignable variations:
These variations can usually be detected and corrected by statistical techniques. Assignable variations are usually caused by machine or a specific batch of production or a container.
Thus the use of SQC permits the:
• Evaluation of magnitude of chance variation of product quality.
• Detection of assignable variations of product quality by means of QC charts.
Sublimation
Definition:
It is conversion of a substance in solid state to a gaseous state, which is not accompanied by the formation of liquid phase.
It is similar in some aspects to the distillation process.
Process of sublimation:
At normal pressures, most of the chemical substances either compounds or elements have three different states of matter at various temperatures. In these circumstances, change from solid state to gaseous state requires a median state that is liquid.
On the other hand, some of the chemical substances such as compounds and elements at certain pressures go directly from solid state to the gaseous state. This occurs when the atmospheric pressure applied on the material is very less to inhibit the molecules from going out of the solid state i.e. a substance go through the process of sublimation only if the vapor pressure is less than that of the triple point for that substance.
Triple point:
The triple point is the point possessing a fixed pressure and temperature at which the solid, liquid and gaseous phases of a material are able to co-exist independently.
If the vapor pressure over the solid substance is more than that of the triple point, the solid will convert to vapor after passage through the liquid phase. The following phase diagram will help to understand the triple point.
Line OA:
In this diagram, line OA shows the melting points of the solid substance at different pressures. In this line, left side shows the existence of solid form while the right side shows the existence of liquid form. This line shows the points of co-existence of the solid and the liquid.
Line OB:
The line OB shows the vapor-pressure curve of the liquid at different temperatures. Above this line liquid phase exists and below this line vapor phase of the substance exists. This line shows the points of co-existence of the liquid and the vapors.
Line OC:
The line OC shows the sublimation curve of the solid. This line shows the points of co-existence of the solid and the vapors at different states of temperatures and pressure.
Point O:
In this diagram, the point O represents the triple point.
Enthalpy:
Enthalpy of sublimation is equal to the sum of enthalpy of fusion and enthalpy of vaporization.
Sublimation process represents an endothermic phase transition as shown by the phase diagram.
Examples:
Nearly all of the solids have some tendency of conversion from solid to gaseous state at a particular temperature and pressure.
Elements:
Cadmium, Zinc, Arsenic, Carbon
Compounds:
CO2 (Dry ice), NH4Cl
Uses:
Its most important use is in freeze-drying.
It is conversion of a substance in solid state to a gaseous state, which is not accompanied by the formation of liquid phase.
It is similar in some aspects to the distillation process.
Process of sublimation:
At normal pressures, most of the chemical substances either compounds or elements have three different states of matter at various temperatures. In these circumstances, change from solid state to gaseous state requires a median state that is liquid.
On the other hand, some of the chemical substances such as compounds and elements at certain pressures go directly from solid state to the gaseous state. This occurs when the atmospheric pressure applied on the material is very less to inhibit the molecules from going out of the solid state i.e. a substance go through the process of sublimation only if the vapor pressure is less than that of the triple point for that substance.
Triple point:
The triple point is the point possessing a fixed pressure and temperature at which the solid, liquid and gaseous phases of a material are able to co-exist independently.
If the vapor pressure over the solid substance is more than that of the triple point, the solid will convert to vapor after passage through the liquid phase. The following phase diagram will help to understand the triple point.
In this diagram, line OA shows the melting points of the solid substance at different pressures. In this line, left side shows the existence of solid form while the right side shows the existence of liquid form. This line shows the points of co-existence of the solid and the liquid.
Line OB:
The line OB shows the vapor-pressure curve of the liquid at different temperatures. Above this line liquid phase exists and below this line vapor phase of the substance exists. This line shows the points of co-existence of the liquid and the vapors.
Line OC:
The line OC shows the sublimation curve of the solid. This line shows the points of co-existence of the solid and the vapors at different states of temperatures and pressure.
Point O:
In this diagram, the point O represents the triple point.
Enthalpy:
Enthalpy of sublimation is equal to the sum of enthalpy of fusion and enthalpy of vaporization.
Examples:
Nearly all of the solids have some tendency of conversion from solid to gaseous state at a particular temperature and pressure.
Elements:
Cadmium, Zinc, Arsenic, Carbon
Compounds:
CO2 (Dry ice), NH4Cl
Uses:
Its most important use is in freeze-drying.
Friday, February 25, 2011
Elutriation
The word “Elutriation” is derived from the Latin word “elutriare” meaning “to wash out”.
Definition:
It is the separation, purification or removal of something from a mixture by decanting, straining or washing.
Process of elutriation:
In the process of elutriation, the movement of the fluid, generally water or air, is in the opposite direction to that of the sedimentation process.
Types of elutriation:
According to direction:
Vertical elutriation:
In the gravitational process, the larger particles present in water (or any other liquid) will move vertically downwards with the affect of gravity while the small particles in the fluid travels straight up with the fluid. This is a type of vertical elutriation.
Horizontal elutriation:
If a water current of suspended particles is flowed through a settling chamber. The particles that move out of the water current are collected in the bottom of the chamber. This is a type of horizontal elutriation.
Centrifugal elutriation:
In this case the water current is caused to spin with some force resulting in the large centrifugal force on the suspended particles. The heavier particles will settle to the walls of the elutriator or to the bottom.
The DorrClone is an example of a centrifugal-type of classifier.
According to the type of fluid:
• Air elutriation
• Water elutriation
If the velocity of the fluid is smaller than the velocity of setting down of the particles then the particles will settle downwards. On the other hand, if the velocity of the fluid is larger than the velocity of setting down of the particles then the particles will be carried up along with the fluid.
Air elutriation will give precise separation of the particles and in less time than water elutriation.
Factors affecting elutriation:
Elutriation is affected by the
• velocity of the fluid
• the particle size : As the small sized particles will flow (upward) along the fluid while the large sized particles will move downwards (against the velocity of the fluid).
• position of the particle in the (tube containing) fluid
• density of the particle
In a tube, there exist different velocities i.e. the velocity is largest in the centre and is smallest along the walls of the tube. So the small sized particles move upward, when in the centre and in the meantime they are also pushed towards the wall of the tube. Where the velocity is smaller and here the small sized particles start to move downwards.
Process of removal of particles:
If the upward flow of the water (or any other liquid) is slightly increased, the small sized particles (which move down slowly) will move along the movement of the water (i.e. upward) and will be removed from the water. In this process, the medium sized particles will remain immobile and the heavier particles will continue to move downward.
The upward flow of water will then again be increased and the next smallest size particles will be removed. And in this way, particles of different sizes will be separated and obtained.
Definition:
It is the separation, purification or removal of something from a mixture by decanting, straining or washing.
Process of elutriation:
In the process of elutriation, the movement of the fluid, generally water or air, is in the opposite direction to that of the sedimentation process.
Types of elutriation:
According to direction:
Vertical elutriation:
In the gravitational process, the larger particles present in water (or any other liquid) will move vertically downwards with the affect of gravity while the small particles in the fluid travels straight up with the fluid. This is a type of vertical elutriation.
Horizontal elutriation:
If a water current of suspended particles is flowed through a settling chamber. The particles that move out of the water current are collected in the bottom of the chamber. This is a type of horizontal elutriation.
Centrifugal elutriation:
In this case the water current is caused to spin with some force resulting in the large centrifugal force on the suspended particles. The heavier particles will settle to the walls of the elutriator or to the bottom.
The DorrClone is an example of a centrifugal-type of classifier.
According to the type of fluid:
• Air elutriation
• Water elutriation
If the velocity of the fluid is smaller than the velocity of setting down of the particles then the particles will settle downwards. On the other hand, if the velocity of the fluid is larger than the velocity of setting down of the particles then the particles will be carried up along with the fluid.
Air elutriation will give precise separation of the particles and in less time than water elutriation.
Factors affecting elutriation:
Elutriation is affected by the
• velocity of the fluid
• the particle size : As the small sized particles will flow (upward) along the fluid while the large sized particles will move downwards (against the velocity of the fluid).
• position of the particle in the (tube containing) fluid
• density of the particle
In a tube, there exist different velocities i.e. the velocity is largest in the centre and is smallest along the walls of the tube. So the small sized particles move upward, when in the centre and in the meantime they are also pushed towards the wall of the tube. Where the velocity is smaller and here the small sized particles start to move downwards.
Process of removal of particles:
If the upward flow of the water (or any other liquid) is slightly increased, the small sized particles (which move down slowly) will move along the movement of the water (i.e. upward) and will be removed from the water. In this process, the medium sized particles will remain immobile and the heavier particles will continue to move downward.
The upward flow of water will then again be increased and the next smallest size particles will be removed. And in this way, particles of different sizes will be separated and obtained.
Centrifugation
It refers to the process of sedimentation by using centrifuge machine.
Basic idea behind centrifugation:
Centrifugation is based on the widely known idea of sedimentation by the use of centrifugal force, which represents a force that apparently moves a spinning or rotating object away from the axis of rotation in a curved path.
Centrifugal effect:
The processes using centrifugal force (F) can be described by the equations involving the gravitational constant (G). In this case, it is easy to determine the centrifugal force in the terms of the ratio of the centrifugal force to the gravitational force. In addition, this ratio represents the centrifugal effect (C).
Centrifugal effect (C) shows that how many times the centrifugal force is larger than gravitational force.
C = 2.013 dn^2
Where
d = diameter of rotation
n = speed of rotation
Here in this equation, “n” has the value in “s-1” and “d” has the value in “m”.
This equation shows that centrifugal effect is directly proportional to the diameter and to the square of the speed of the rotation i.e. greater will be the diameter of the tube or container more will be centrifugation and similarly for the speed of rotation.
Factors affecting centrifugation:
Centrifugation is basically affected by centrifugal effect. Moreover, nature of the liquid medium in which the particles are placed also affects the centrifugation.
Apparatus for centrifugation (Centrifuges):
Container is the most important part of centrifugation apparatus i.e. centrifuges. This container is used for the placement of a mixture or solution of solid and liquid or of a solution of two liquids.
This container is then rotated at greater speed resulting in the separation of the ingredients of the mixture takes place by the use of centrifugal force.
Mechanism for the separation in the apparatus of centrifugation:
A mixture of liquid or solid in a liquid of low density can be separated as the material of larger density is thrown in the outward direction to the bottom of the tube or container with a larger force. This results in the separation of pure, low-density liquid as a transparent or purified supernatant liquid which forms upper layer.
Types of centrifuges:
There are two basic types of centrifuges:
1. Sedimentation
2. Filtration
Sedimentation centrifuges:
The basic principle, in the sedimentation type of centrifuges, is difference in the densities of the ingredients of the mixture. In these types of centrifuges, the particles are settled to the wall by the action of the centrifugal force.
These types of centrifuges are used for the separation of ingredients of the mixture of solid in liquid as well as liquid in liquid.
Two types of centrifuges are based on the principle of sedimentation:
1. Bottle centrifuge
2. Disc type centrifuge
Bottle centrifuge:
It is mostly used centrifuge machine in the laboratories. It consists of a vertical rotating rod that causes the “bottle-type” containers or test tubes, which are fixed symmetrically, to be rotated in a horizontal plane resulting in the separation of the materials of varying densities. The vertical rod is rotated usually by means of electric motor. Sometimes, gas turbines can also be used for the rotation.
Disk type centrifuge:
It consists of vertical pile of thin conical disks, which are arranged in the manner of one on the top of another. The sedimentation of the particles takes place in the space between neighbouring cones. In this way, settling distance is greatly reduced, thereby increasing the rate at which the particles in the material are separated. The cones are adjusted in such a manner that heavier material moves down the surface easily upon reaching the inner surface of the cone.
It is same in the basic operation to the sedimentation types of centrifuges but instead of solid containers or tubes, it contains a porous wall or perforated containers or baskets, which causes the liquid phase to pass through it but keeps the solid phase on it.
Centrifuge based on the principle of filtration is “Basket centrifuge”.
Basket centrifuge:
Basket centrifuge consists of a porous wall and rotor which is cylindrical and tubular in structure. The porous wall is some times replaced by one or more of the fine mesh screens. The fluid go through the screen where as the particles larger in size are left on the screen.
Centrifugation is used for the separation of ingredients of a mixture of solid in liquid or liquid in liquid as the degree of separation achieved by centrifugation is of greater amplitude than the action due to gravity.
It is important specifically when the separation by normal filtration methods is difficult such as in the separation of fluids of highly viscous nature.
In the pharmaceutical research, it is considered as an important tool in determining the stability of emulsions.
Bottle centrifuge can be used for:
1. Finding the sediments present in crude vegetable and mineral oils
2. Determination of the butterfat content in the milk
3. Various clinical trials and tests
Disk type centrifuge can be used for refining of vegetable oils by removing soap stock
Basket centrifuge can be used for:
1. Drying and washing of several different kinds of crystals and fibrous materials
2. The preparation of cane sugar.
Basic idea behind centrifugation:
Centrifugation is based on the widely known idea of sedimentation by the use of centrifugal force, which represents a force that apparently moves a spinning or rotating object away from the axis of rotation in a curved path.
Centrifugal effect:
The processes using centrifugal force (F) can be described by the equations involving the gravitational constant (G). In this case, it is easy to determine the centrifugal force in the terms of the ratio of the centrifugal force to the gravitational force. In addition, this ratio represents the centrifugal effect (C).
Centrifugal effect (C) shows that how many times the centrifugal force is larger than gravitational force.
C = 2.013 dn^2
Where
d = diameter of rotation
n = speed of rotation
Here in this equation, “n” has the value in “s-1” and “d” has the value in “m”.
This equation shows that centrifugal effect is directly proportional to the diameter and to the square of the speed of the rotation i.e. greater will be the diameter of the tube or container more will be centrifugation and similarly for the speed of rotation.
Factors affecting centrifugation:
Centrifugation is basically affected by centrifugal effect. Moreover, nature of the liquid medium in which the particles are placed also affects the centrifugation.
Apparatus for centrifugation (Centrifuges):
Container is the most important part of centrifugation apparatus i.e. centrifuges. This container is used for the placement of a mixture or solution of solid and liquid or of a solution of two liquids.
This container is then rotated at greater speed resulting in the separation of the ingredients of the mixture takes place by the use of centrifugal force.
Mechanism for the separation in the apparatus of centrifugation:
A mixture of liquid or solid in a liquid of low density can be separated as the material of larger density is thrown in the outward direction to the bottom of the tube or container with a larger force. This results in the separation of pure, low-density liquid as a transparent or purified supernatant liquid which forms upper layer.
Types of centrifuges:
There are two basic types of centrifuges:
1. Sedimentation
2. Filtration
Sedimentation centrifuges:
The basic principle, in the sedimentation type of centrifuges, is difference in the densities of the ingredients of the mixture. In these types of centrifuges, the particles are settled to the wall by the action of the centrifugal force.
These types of centrifuges are used for the separation of ingredients of the mixture of solid in liquid as well as liquid in liquid.
Two types of centrifuges are based on the principle of sedimentation:
1. Bottle centrifuge
2. Disc type centrifuge
Bottle centrifuge:
It is mostly used centrifuge machine in the laboratories. It consists of a vertical rotating rod that causes the “bottle-type” containers or test tubes, which are fixed symmetrically, to be rotated in a horizontal plane resulting in the separation of the materials of varying densities. The vertical rod is rotated usually by means of electric motor. Sometimes, gas turbines can also be used for the rotation.
Disk type centrifuge:
It consists of vertical pile of thin conical disks, which are arranged in the manner of one on the top of another. The sedimentation of the particles takes place in the space between neighbouring cones. In this way, settling distance is greatly reduced, thereby increasing the rate at which the particles in the material are separated. The cones are adjusted in such a manner that heavier material moves down the surface easily upon reaching the inner surface of the cone.
Filtration centrifuges:
These types of centrifuges are used for the separation of the mixture of solid in liquid only performing the operation similar to the filtration process. These are also sometimes referred to as clarifiers.It is same in the basic operation to the sedimentation types of centrifuges but instead of solid containers or tubes, it contains a porous wall or perforated containers or baskets, which causes the liquid phase to pass through it but keeps the solid phase on it.
Centrifuge based on the principle of filtration is “Basket centrifuge”.
Basket centrifuge:
Basket centrifuge consists of a porous wall and rotor which is cylindrical and tubular in structure. The porous wall is some times replaced by one or more of the fine mesh screens. The fluid go through the screen where as the particles larger in size are left on the screen.
Application of centrifugation:
Centrifugation is used for the separation of ingredients of a mixture of solid in liquid or liquid in liquid as the degree of separation achieved by centrifugation is of greater amplitude than the action due to gravity.
It is important specifically when the separation by normal filtration methods is difficult such as in the separation of fluids of highly viscous nature.
In the pharmaceutical research, it is considered as an important tool in determining the stability of emulsions.
Bottle centrifuge can be used for:
1. Finding the sediments present in crude vegetable and mineral oils
2. Determination of the butterfat content in the milk
3. Various clinical trials and tests
Disk type centrifuge can be used for refining of vegetable oils by removing soap stock
Basket centrifuge can be used for:
1. Drying and washing of several different kinds of crystals and fibrous materials
2. The preparation of cane sugar.
Bougies
Introduction:
Its name came from the town namely “bougie” in Algeria, which was famous for trading in wax. Its original meaning is “A candle made by wax”. These are the types of suppositories intended for insertion into the urethra, nostrils or ears.
It is also a medical instrument in the shape of cylinder, made up of a flexible tube.
Forms of bougie:
Bulbous bougie:
It is a form of bougie with a bulb shaped tip.
Eder-pustow bougie:
It is a form of metal bougie which resembles olive in shape. It may be used in esophageal stricture.
Elastic bougie:
A bougie made of rubber or latex.
Elbowed bougie:
A bougie with a bent near its tip.
Use:
It is used for opening of constricted areas in tubular organs such as urethra or esophagus and rectum, so, that medicines for local application or another instruments can easily be inserted in that part.
Its name came from the town namely “bougie” in Algeria, which was famous for trading in wax. Its original meaning is “A candle made by wax”. These are the types of suppositories intended for insertion into the urethra, nostrils or ears.
It is also a medical instrument in the shape of cylinder, made up of a flexible tube.
Forms of bougie:
Bulbous bougie:
It is a form of bougie with a bulb shaped tip.
Eder-pustow bougie:
It is a form of metal bougie which resembles olive in shape. It may be used in esophageal stricture.
Elastic bougie:
A bougie made of rubber or latex.
Elbowed bougie:
A bougie with a bent near its tip.
Use:
It is used for opening of constricted areas in tubular organs such as urethra or esophagus and rectum, so, that medicines for local application or another instruments can easily be inserted in that part.
Thursday, February 24, 2011
Types of properties of solutions
There are following three types of properties of solution:
1. Additive properties
2. Constitutive properties
3. Colligative properties
Additive properties:
These are the properties which are due to sum of corresponding properties of individual atoms or functional groups within the molecules e.g. molecular weight.
Constitutive property:
These are the properties which depend upon the structural arrangement of atoms within the molecules for example optical properties and surface and interfacial properties.
Colligative property:
These are the properties which depend upon the number of molecules present in solution.
Following are colligative properties of dilute solution:
1. Lowering of vapor pressure
2. Elevation of boiling point
3. Depression of freezing point
4. Osmotic pressure
1. Additive properties
2. Constitutive properties
3. Colligative properties
Additive properties:
These are the properties which are due to sum of corresponding properties of individual atoms or functional groups within the molecules e.g. molecular weight.
Constitutive property:
These are the properties which depend upon the structural arrangement of atoms within the molecules for example optical properties and surface and interfacial properties.
Colligative property:
These are the properties which depend upon the number of molecules present in solution.
Following are colligative properties of dilute solution:
1. Lowering of vapor pressure
2. Elevation of boiling point
3. Depression of freezing point
4. Osmotic pressure
Tuesday, February 22, 2011
Hydryllin syrup
Hydryllin syrup is used for cough. It is a product of Searle Pharmaceuticals.
Ingredients:
Its active ingredients are
1. Aminophylline (It is a bronchodilator i.e. eases breathing by opening the air passages to the lungs)
2. Ammonium chloride (It is an expectorant i.e. produces and getting rid of thick mucus in the respiratory passages)
3. Diphenhydramine (An antihistamine to treat allergies)
4. Menthol (Mint tasting compound obtained from peppermint oil)
Uses:
Cough Expectorant
Contraindications:
It is contra-indicated in patients of acute myocardial infarction or peptic ulcers.
It is also contra-indicated in patients who are hypersensitive to its components.
List of Cough Syrups from multi-national companies available in Pakistan:
1. Actifed DM Cough syrup (GSK)
2. Babynol Cough Syrup (Woodwards)
3. Benatuss Syrup (Johnson)
4. Benylin DM Syrup (Johnson)
5. Benylin E Syrup (Johnson)
6. Corex D Cough Syrup (Pfizer)
7. Cosome Cough Syrup (Merck)
8. Cosome E Cough Syrup (Merck)
9. Daycor Syrup (Abbott)
10. Nicor Syrup (Abbott)
11. Phensedyl-P syrup (Sanofi Aventis)
12. Rondec Cough Syrup (Abbott)
13. Rondec-C Cough Syrup (Abbott)
14. Sancos Syrup (Novartis)
15. Triaminic Cough Syrup (Novartis)
16. Tussivil Syrup (Pfizer)
Ingredients:
Its active ingredients are
1. Aminophylline (It is a bronchodilator i.e. eases breathing by opening the air passages to the lungs)
2. Ammonium chloride (It is an expectorant i.e. produces and getting rid of thick mucus in the respiratory passages)
3. Diphenhydramine (An antihistamine to treat allergies)
4. Menthol (Mint tasting compound obtained from peppermint oil)
Uses:
Cough Expectorant
Contraindications:
It is contra-indicated in patients of acute myocardial infarction or peptic ulcers.
It is also contra-indicated in patients who are hypersensitive to its components.
List of Cough Syrups from multi-national companies available in Pakistan:
1. Actifed DM Cough syrup (GSK)
2. Babynol Cough Syrup (Woodwards)
3. Benatuss Syrup (Johnson)
4. Benylin DM Syrup (Johnson)
5. Benylin E Syrup (Johnson)
6. Corex D Cough Syrup (Pfizer)
7. Cosome Cough Syrup (Merck)
8. Cosome E Cough Syrup (Merck)
9. Daycor Syrup (Abbott)
10. Nicor Syrup (Abbott)
11. Phensedyl-P syrup (Sanofi Aventis)
12. Rondec Cough Syrup (Abbott)
13. Rondec-C Cough Syrup (Abbott)
14. Sancos Syrup (Novartis)
15. Triaminic Cough Syrup (Novartis)
16. Tussivil Syrup (Pfizer)
Monday, February 21, 2011
Tincture
A tincture is an alcoholic extract (e.g. of leaves or other plant material) or solution of a non-volatile substance (e.g. of iodine, mercurochrome). To qualify as a tincture, the alcoholic extract is to have an ethanol percentage of at least 40-60% (80-120 proof) (sometimes a 90% (180 proof) pure liquid is even achieved). In herbal medicine, alcoholic tinctures are often made with various concentrations of ethanol, 25% being the most common. Other concentrations include 45% and 90%. Herbal tinctures do not always use ethanol as a solvent, though this is the most frequent. Other solvents include vinegar, glycerol, ether and propylene glycol, not all of which are used for internal consumption. However, where a raw solvent's pH factor is a sole consideration, the advantage of ethanol is that being close to neutral pH, it is a good compromise as a passive used solvent of both acidic and alkaline constituents where a tincturing methodology is concerned. Glycerine, when utilized in a tincture methodology's passive (i.e. 'non-critical') manner, is a poorer solvent generally, and vinegar, being acidic, is a better solvent of alkaloids but a poorer solvent of acids, which would result in the alkaloids being more present in the preparation than otherwise. However, for people who do not imbibe alcohol for medical, religious or moral reasons, non-alcoholic (glycerite) tinctures are an alternative.
Alcohol tinctures cannot be subjected to high temperatures and are thus considered a 'non-critical' passive methodology regarding this factor. This is one of the primary reasons why glycerol, due to early Eclectic medicine studies (now for the most part outdated concerning the subject), is typically seen as inferior to alcohol, when utilized in a non-critical tincture methodology fashion (which is how Eclectic medicine researchers utilized glycerol in their tincture making studies), since it does not exhibit the extractive potential of alcohol when used in a low temperature non-critical tincturing setting. Glycerol used in a non-critical tincturing methodology, as is typically done in the herbal products industry at large for instance, will result in a weak solution, whereas if glycerol is subjected to a contemporary innovative serialized methodology currently in the industry, the extractive potential of glycerol is quite astounding. Therefore, glycerite products made using such innovative serialized extraction technologies are showing great promise, even rivaling alcohol tinctures on numerous points.
Solutions of volatile substances were called spirits, although that name was also given to several other materials obtained by distillation, even when they did not include alcohol. In chemistry, a tincture is a solution that has alcohol as the solvent.
General Method of preparation:
A general method of preparation on how tinctures can be prepared is the following:
Advantages of Tincture:
Ethanol is able to dissolve substances which are less soluble in water, while at the same time the water content can dissolve the substances less soluble in ethanol. It is possible to vary the proportion of ethanol and water to produce tinctures with different qualities because of different substances. One example of this is tincture of Calendula officinalis, which is frequently used either at 25% ethanol or 90% ethanol. The solvent also acts as a preservative.
Disadvantages of tinctures
Chemically speaking, ethanol possesses a profound intrinsic denaturing and inert rendering quality. This quality accounts for a large part of ethanol's anti-microbial properties. This denaturing and inert rendering quality also has an undesired effect on many extracted botanical constituents. For instance, alcohol intrinsically fractures and denatures many highly complex aromatic compounds and denatures many extracted for polysaccharides. Other constituents are likewise subjected to denaturing and being rendered inert. The basic tenets of chemistry teach that anytime a biologically viable component is denatured or rendered inert, it will reduce or negate the prior biological viability. This factor needs to be seriously considered and weighed by the clinician or consumer when determining the hoped for biological viability of an ethanol-based botanical tincture both as to sought for efficacy and dosage considerations.
Ether and propylene glycol tinctures are not suitable for internal consumption and are instead used in such preparations as creams or ointments.
Examples of Tinctures:
Some examples that were formerly common in medicine include:
Alcohol tinctures cannot be subjected to high temperatures and are thus considered a 'non-critical' passive methodology regarding this factor. This is one of the primary reasons why glycerol, due to early Eclectic medicine studies (now for the most part outdated concerning the subject), is typically seen as inferior to alcohol, when utilized in a non-critical tincture methodology fashion (which is how Eclectic medicine researchers utilized glycerol in their tincture making studies), since it does not exhibit the extractive potential of alcohol when used in a low temperature non-critical tincturing setting. Glycerol used in a non-critical tincturing methodology, as is typically done in the herbal products industry at large for instance, will result in a weak solution, whereas if glycerol is subjected to a contemporary innovative serialized methodology currently in the industry, the extractive potential of glycerol is quite astounding. Therefore, glycerite products made using such innovative serialized extraction technologies are showing great promise, even rivaling alcohol tinctures on numerous points.
Solutions of volatile substances were called spirits, although that name was also given to several other materials obtained by distillation, even when they did not include alcohol. In chemistry, a tincture is a solution that has alcohol as the solvent.
General Method of preparation:
A general method of preparation on how tinctures can be prepared is the following:
- Herbs are put in a jar and a spirit of 40% pure ethanol is added (80 proof Vodka, for example)
- The jar is left to stand for 2–3 weeks, shaken occasionally, in order to maximise the concentration of the solution.
Advantages of Tincture:
Ethanol is able to dissolve substances which are less soluble in water, while at the same time the water content can dissolve the substances less soluble in ethanol. It is possible to vary the proportion of ethanol and water to produce tinctures with different qualities because of different substances. One example of this is tincture of Calendula officinalis, which is frequently used either at 25% ethanol or 90% ethanol. The solvent also acts as a preservative.
Disadvantages of tinctures
Chemically speaking, ethanol possesses a profound intrinsic denaturing and inert rendering quality. This quality accounts for a large part of ethanol's anti-microbial properties. This denaturing and inert rendering quality also has an undesired effect on many extracted botanical constituents. For instance, alcohol intrinsically fractures and denatures many highly complex aromatic compounds and denatures many extracted for polysaccharides. Other constituents are likewise subjected to denaturing and being rendered inert. The basic tenets of chemistry teach that anytime a biologically viable component is denatured or rendered inert, it will reduce or negate the prior biological viability. This factor needs to be seriously considered and weighed by the clinician or consumer when determining the hoped for biological viability of an ethanol-based botanical tincture both as to sought for efficacy and dosage considerations.
Ether and propylene glycol tinctures are not suitable for internal consumption and are instead used in such preparations as creams or ointments.
Examples of Tinctures:
Some examples that were formerly common in medicine include:
- Tincture of Cannabis sativa
- Tincture of Benzoin
- Tincture of cantharides
- Tincture of ferric citrochloride (a chelate of citric acid and Iron(III) chloride)
- Tincture of green soap (which also contains lavender)
- Tincture of guaiac
- Tincture of iodine
- Tincture of opium (laudanum)
- Camphorated opium tincture (paregoric)
- Tincture of Pennyroyal
- Warburg's Tincture (aka Tinctura Antiperiodica aka Antiperiodic Tincture), an antipyretic medicine of the 19th-century.
- Spirit of ammonia (also called spirit of hartshorn)
- Spirit of box, or ethanol, which was derived from the destructive distillation of boxwood
- Spirit of camphor
- Spirit of ether, a solution of diethyl ether in alcohol
- "Spirit of Mindererus", ammonium acetate in alcohol
- "Spirit of nitre" is not a spirit in this sense, but an old name for nitric acid (but "sweet spirit of nitre" was ethyl nitrite)
- Similarly "spirit(s) of salt" actually meant hydrochloric acid. The concentrated, fuming, 35% acid is still sold under this name in the UK, for use as a drain-cleaning fluid.
- "Spirit of vinegar" was glacial acetic acid and
- "Spirit of vitriol" was sulfuric acid
- "Spirit of wine" or "spirits of wine" is an old name for alcohol (especially food grade alcohol derived from the distillation of wine)
- "Spirit of wood" means methanol, often derived from the destructive distillation of wood
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