Large Hadron Collider is entering world of higher energy level

Large Hadron Collider (LHC) in CERN's European Physics Laboratory will get increased levels of energy to do work. Its beam energy will be increased by 0.5 TeV this year and becomes 4 TeV (trillion electron-volt). After the completion of these experiments, LHC will work on 7 TeV after 20 months of gap.

Researchers and Experts have made this decision in order to get information for new particles. Research director of CERN, Sergio Bertolucci, said that we will reach a point where we will say that we have discovered the reality of Higgs boson i.e. God particle.

By the time the LHC goes into its first long stop at the end of this year, we will either know that a Higgs particle exists or have ruled out the existence of a Standard Model Higgs. Either would be a major advance in our exploration of nature, bringing us closer to understanding how the fundamental particles acquire their mass, and marking the beginning of a new chapter in particle physics.

From SayPeople,

Previous operations of the lab showed some evidences of Higgs boson in the range of 124-126 GeV and passed the 4-sigma level of confidence. In order to be officially discovered, Higgs boson must have to get the 5-sigma level of confidence and this year’s operation could help in finalizing the results.

Further Reading:
SayPeople

Lorentz force law

It is equal to a force on a point charge due to electromagnetic fields.

It is given by the following equation in terms of electromagnetic fields:

F = q [E + (v x B)]

where,
F = force (in newtons)
E = electric field (in volts per meter)
B= magnetic field (in teslas)
q = electric charge of the particle (in coulombs)
v = instantaneous velocity of the particle (in meters per second)

Transistor

An electronic device that can be used to control the flow of current.

Field effect transistor:
A transistor using electric field for accumulating or depleting one of the channel region, which is used for the allowing or stoping conduction.(W. Shockley et al.)The "field-effect" type of transistor is one in which the conductivity of a layer of semiconductor is modulated by a transverse electric field. A unipolar field effect transistor is one in which, the amplifying action involves currents carried pre-dominantly by one kind of carrier.

(Piet Bergveld et al.)Ion sensitive field effect transistor is a type of transistor that makes it easy to sense the ionic activities without using the reference electrodes.

References:
Piet Bergveld, Development, Operation, and Application of the Ion-Sensitive Field-Effect Transistor as a Tool for Electrophysiology. IEEE transactions on biomedical engineering Sept. 1972, Volume: BME-19, Issue: 5, Pages 342-351.

W. Shockley, A Unipolar "Field-Effect" Transistor. Proceedings of the IRE, Nov. 1952 Volume: 40, Issue: 11, Pages 1365-1376.

Further Reading:
Transistor Circuit Techniques: Discrete and integrated, 3rd Edition by Gordon J. Ritchie

Copyright (c), 2008, jeepakistan.blogspot.com

Conductors

Conductors can cause electricity to pass through it easily.

Transmission of electrons:
(Abraham Nitzan) Electron transmission through molecules and molecular interfaces has been a subject of intensive research due to recent interest in electron transfer phenomena underlying the operation of the scanning tunneling microscope (STM) on one hand, and in the transmission properties of molecular bridges between conducting leads on the other.
In these processes the traditional molecular view of electron transfer between donor and acceptor species give rise to a novel view of the molecule as a current carrying conductor, and observables such as electron transfer rates and yields are replaced by the conductivities, or more generally by current-voltage relationships, in molecular junctions.

(Noriaki Hamada et al.) There are variations in electronic transport in Carbon microtubules ( either they are metallic or semiconductors with narrow and moderate band gaps) depending on the diameter of the tubule and on the degree of helical arrangement of the carbon hexagons. This drastic variation in the band structure can be explained by the 2-dimensional band structure of graphite.

(Albert E. Seaver) Ohm's law (equation) is often used for the study of charge transport. When Ohm's law is combined with Gauss's law and the equation of continuity, a differential equation of volume charge density relaxation can be formed. The solution for this equation is material's permitivity divided by electrical conductivity that shows charge decays exponentially with a relaxation time.

Experiments show that good conductors follow a exponential decay and poor conductors show a decay which is more hyperbolic than exponential.

Following equation has been developed which can be used for both good conductors and poor insulators:

where

Pp is inserted charge

Pp0 is initial charge density

Tm is relaxation time constant

Tp is perturbation time constant.

(For further studies see references)

Properties of Conductors:
(J.B. Pendry et al.)Some microstructures, which are built from nonmagnetic conducting sheets, exhibit an effective magnetic permeability indicated by μeff, which can be tuned to values not accessible in naturally occurring materials, including large imaginary components of μeff.

Super conductors:
Extremely good conductors at low heat which produce no heat and causes no resistance. (Clovis Jacinto de Matos)There is a strong attractive gravitational forces between two electrons in superconductors which is concluded from the Eddington–Dirac large number relation, together with Beck and Mackey electromagnetic model of vacuum energy in superconductors.

Semi-Conductors:
Semi-conductors can pass electricity but not to that extent as conductors and they have the ability to pass electricity only at high temperatures.

Optical conductors:
Conductors which have the ability to pass light.

Transparent conductors:
(K. L. Chopra et al.) Studies are in process for the refinement and progress of transparent conductors. Non-stoichiometric, doped films of oxides of tin, indium, cadmium, zinc and their various alloys, deposited by numerous techniques, exhibit nearly metallic conductivity.

References:
Abraham Nitzan, Electron transmission through molecules and molecular interfaces. Condensed Matter

Albert E. Seaver, An Equation For Charge Decay Valid in Both Conductors
and Insulators. Proceedings ESA-IEJ Joint Meeting 2002, Pages pp. 349-360.

Clovis Jacinto de Matos, Gravitational force between two electrons in superconductors. Physica C: Superconductivity, Volume 468, Issue 3, 1 February 2008, Pages 229-232.

J. B. Pendry, A. J. Holden, D. J. Robbins, W. J. Stewart, Magnetism from conductors and enhanced nonlinear phenomena. Ieee Transactions on Microwave Theory & Techniques , 1999Volume: 47, Issue: 11, Pages 2075-2084.

K. L. Chopra, S. Major, D. K. Pandya, Transparent conductors -- a status review. THIN SOL. FILMS. Vol. 102, no. 1, Pages, 1-46. 1983.

Noriaki Hamada, Shin-ichi Sawada, and Atsushi Oshiyama , New one-dimensional conductors: Graphitic microtubules. Physical review letters, 68, Pages 1579 - 1581 (1992)

Further Reading:
High Conductivity Solid Ionic Conductors: Recent Trends and Applications by International Conference on Solid State Ionics 1987 Garmisch-partenki

The Physics of Organic Superconductors and Conductors (Springer Series in Materials Science) by A. G. Lebed

Transparent Conductive Zinc Oxide: Basics and Applications in Thin Film Solar Cells by Klaus Ellmer, Andreas Klein, Bernd Rech

Copyright (c), 2008, jeepakistan.blogspot.com