ACTH: Adrenocorticotropic hormone.
Saturday, February 26, 2011
Acetic Acid
Acetic acid: CH3COOH. It is a colorless product obtained by the oxidation of ethanol and destructive distillation of the wood. It has a pungent odor and is the main constituent of vinegar. It is used in the manufacture of many products such as drugs, dyes, plastics and fibers. It is used locally as counterirritant and as a reagent. It is also known as ethanoic acid.
Lyophilization
It is also referred to as “freeze-drying”, “sublimation-drying” or “cryodesiccation”.
Definition:
It is the process of isolation of a substance (solid) from solution by freezing it and evaporating the ice under vacuum (by sublimation).
Process of lyophilization:
In the process of lyophilization, water or any other solvent is removed from a frozen solution by sublimation caused by reduction of the temperature and pressure to values at a lower level than the triple point.
Under the application of these conditions, heat applied is used as latent heat and the ice converts directly to the vapor state (by the process of sublimation).
Practically, the following features must be taken into account.
Temperature and pressure are necessary to be at a lower level than the triple point and it is usually -10 ºC to -30 ºC and 10 N/m2 to 30 N/m2 respectively. To achieve this pressure, the vapors must be removed or else the vapor pressure will affect this pressure.
Stages of the freeze-drying process:
Following stages are found in lyophilization:
1. Freezing
2. Vacuum
3. Primary drying
4. Secondary drying
5. Packaging
Freezing:
The material is usually frozen before the application of vacuum. A number of methods are used in freezing of the material.
In shell freezing, the bottle is partially filled with the material to be frozen. It is placed in a refrigerator almost horizontally and rotated slowly. In this way the material freezes along side the walls of the bottle and resulting in large area for heat transfer and sublimation.
In vertical spin freezing, small crystals of ice are produced. In this method, the bottles are first placed in a moderate coldness and rotated quickly in vertical position in a constant flow of very cold air. This result in the liquid becoming super cooled and freezing occurs rapidly.
Vacuum:
Vacuum pumps are used to create the vacuum and reducing the pressure sufficiently.
On small scale, two-stage rotary pumps are used while on large scale ejector pumps are used.
Primary drying:
During the primary drying, two important processes are followed i.e. (1) vapors are removed by applying (2) the latent heat of sublimation. The apparatus similar to the vacuum oven can be used.
Heat transfer is crucial in this process as the extra heat may cause the material to melt and less heat may cause the process to be prolonged or no sublimation. So, heat transfer must be controlled.
Vapor removal is important to reduce a change in pressure. On the small scale, vapor is removed by using desiccant such as phosphorus pentoxide or by using a small condenser. And on the large scale condensation is helpful to remove vapors and by using pumps such ejector pumps.
The rate of drying in lyophilization is very low showing that the rate of drying of ice is about 1 mm depth per hour.
Secondary drying:
The primary drying may leave about 0-5 % of moisture in the solid, which can be removed by secondary drying process.
In this method, temperature may raise above 0 ºC to break any type of physico-chemical interactions between the frozen material and the water molecules resulting in the removal of the moisture.
High temperature can be used, as the risk of hydrolysis is negligible in the secondary drying because the secondary drying is an ordinary vacuum drying phase.
Packaging:
After the completion of freeze-drying process, vacuum is usually removed by the application of an inert gas such as nitrogen before the material is tightly closed. Great care is needed in the packaging of freeze dried products. Containers must be tightly closed to protect from moisture.
Freeze-drying equipment:
There are three types of freeze-dryers:
1. Rotary evaporators
2. Manifold freeze-dryers
3. Tray freeze-dryers
Uses:
Aqueous solutions and/or dispersions of oxygen-sensitive or heat-sensitive drugs, biologicals such as blood products (such as peptides, proteins), antibiotics (other than penicillin), vaccines (such as BCG, yellow fever, smallpox) and enzyme preparations (such as hyaluronidase) and microbiological cultures are usually freeze-dried.
After freeze-drying and packing the material in a vial, the material can be stored, shipped and reconstituted later to the primary form for the use as injection.
It increases the shelf life of some of the pharmaceuticals for many years.
Advantages of lyophilization:
1. Decomposition and hydrolysis of the product is reduced as a result of prevention of the enzyme action due to very low temperature.
2. Oxidation is reduced as a result of high vacuum and less air.
3. The product is light and porous as the original solution was frozen and there is no incorporation of extra materials.
4. As the product is porous so this results in more solubility.
Disadvantages of lyophilization:
1. The high porous nature (results in more solubility) and highly dried state results in a highly hygroscopic product. So special conditions are required up to packaging.
2. The process is very slow and requires expensive instruments and plants.
Definition:
It is the process of isolation of a substance (solid) from solution by freezing it and evaporating the ice under vacuum (by sublimation).
Process of lyophilization:
In the process of lyophilization, water or any other solvent is removed from a frozen solution by sublimation caused by reduction of the temperature and pressure to values at a lower level than the triple point.
Under the application of these conditions, heat applied is used as latent heat and the ice converts directly to the vapor state (by the process of sublimation).
Practically, the following features must be taken into account.
Temperature and pressure are necessary to be at a lower level than the triple point and it is usually -10 ºC to -30 ºC and 10 N/m2 to 30 N/m2 respectively. To achieve this pressure, the vapors must be removed or else the vapor pressure will affect this pressure.
Stages of the freeze-drying process:
Following stages are found in lyophilization:
1. Freezing
2. Vacuum
3. Primary drying
4. Secondary drying
5. Packaging
Freezing:
The material is usually frozen before the application of vacuum. A number of methods are used in freezing of the material.
In shell freezing, the bottle is partially filled with the material to be frozen. It is placed in a refrigerator almost horizontally and rotated slowly. In this way the material freezes along side the walls of the bottle and resulting in large area for heat transfer and sublimation.
In vertical spin freezing, small crystals of ice are produced. In this method, the bottles are first placed in a moderate coldness and rotated quickly in vertical position in a constant flow of very cold air. This result in the liquid becoming super cooled and freezing occurs rapidly.
Vacuum:
Vacuum pumps are used to create the vacuum and reducing the pressure sufficiently.
On small scale, two-stage rotary pumps are used while on large scale ejector pumps are used.
Primary drying:
During the primary drying, two important processes are followed i.e. (1) vapors are removed by applying (2) the latent heat of sublimation. The apparatus similar to the vacuum oven can be used.
Heat transfer is crucial in this process as the extra heat may cause the material to melt and less heat may cause the process to be prolonged or no sublimation. So, heat transfer must be controlled.
Vapor removal is important to reduce a change in pressure. On the small scale, vapor is removed by using desiccant such as phosphorus pentoxide or by using a small condenser. And on the large scale condensation is helpful to remove vapors and by using pumps such ejector pumps.
The rate of drying in lyophilization is very low showing that the rate of drying of ice is about 1 mm depth per hour.
Secondary drying:
The primary drying may leave about 0-5 % of moisture in the solid, which can be removed by secondary drying process.
In this method, temperature may raise above 0 ºC to break any type of physico-chemical interactions between the frozen material and the water molecules resulting in the removal of the moisture.
High temperature can be used, as the risk of hydrolysis is negligible in the secondary drying because the secondary drying is an ordinary vacuum drying phase.
Packaging:
After the completion of freeze-drying process, vacuum is usually removed by the application of an inert gas such as nitrogen before the material is tightly closed. Great care is needed in the packaging of freeze dried products. Containers must be tightly closed to protect from moisture.
Freeze-drying equipment:
There are three types of freeze-dryers:
1. Rotary evaporators
2. Manifold freeze-dryers
3. Tray freeze-dryers
Uses:
Aqueous solutions and/or dispersions of oxygen-sensitive or heat-sensitive drugs, biologicals such as blood products (such as peptides, proteins), antibiotics (other than penicillin), vaccines (such as BCG, yellow fever, smallpox) and enzyme preparations (such as hyaluronidase) and microbiological cultures are usually freeze-dried.
After freeze-drying and packing the material in a vial, the material can be stored, shipped and reconstituted later to the primary form for the use as injection.
It increases the shelf life of some of the pharmaceuticals for many years.
Advantages of lyophilization:
1. Decomposition and hydrolysis of the product is reduced as a result of prevention of the enzyme action due to very low temperature.
2. Oxidation is reduced as a result of high vacuum and less air.
3. The product is light and porous as the original solution was frozen and there is no incorporation of extra materials.
4. As the product is porous so this results in more solubility.
Disadvantages of lyophilization:
1. The high porous nature (results in more solubility) and highly dried state results in a highly hygroscopic product. So special conditions are required up to packaging.
2. The process is very slow and requires expensive instruments and plants.
Statistical Quality Control in Pharmaceutics
Definition:
Statistical quality control (SQC)is defined as:
“The monitoring of quality by application of statistical method in all stages of production.”
Explanation:
Statistical methods of investigation are based on the theory of probability.
• Type of measurement
• Sampling techniques
• Design of Experiments
• Type of Sample distribution
The procedure consists of:
• Proper sampling of product
• Determining quality variations of the sample
• Making inferences to the entire batch under investigation from the observed data
• Once the characteristic data pattern of a process has been determined, the pattern can be utilized to predict the limits within which future data can be expected to fall as a matter of chance, and to determine when significant variations in the process have taken place.
Data Analysis:
Data can be analyzed by using appropriate method of analysis:
t-test:
t-test for comparison of two populations. T-value is calculated and from t-value the P-value is noted from the table:
If
P>0.05; test is non-significant
And if
P<0.05; test is significant.
ANOVA:
It means analysis of variance and is used for comparison of more than 2 parameters.
Objectives:
The objective is to determine whether the major source of observed variations is by chance or assignable.
Types of variations:
Chance variations:
These variations are inevitable because any program of production and inspection has its own unique chance causes of variations which can not be controlled or eliminated and often cannot be identified.
Assignable variations:
These variations can usually be detected and corrected by statistical techniques. Assignable variations are usually caused by machine or a specific batch of production or a container.
Thus the use of SQC permits the:
• Evaluation of magnitude of chance variation of product quality.
• Detection of assignable variations of product quality by means of QC charts.
Statistical quality control (SQC)is defined as:
“The monitoring of quality by application of statistical method in all stages of production.”
Explanation:
Statistical methods of investigation are based on the theory of probability.
It relates to the characteristic of product from both qualitative and quantitative point of views to meet the established standards.
Uses:
It has been used to serve:
• As a basis for improved evaluation of materials through more representative sampling technique
• As a means of achieving sharper control in certain manufacturing processes
• To provide logical approach to variations
Selection:
Selection of appropriate method depends on:• Type of measurement
• Sampling techniques
• Design of Experiments
• Type of Sample distribution
Procedure:
The procedure consists of:
• Proper sampling of product
• Determining quality variations of the sample
• Making inferences to the entire batch under investigation from the observed data
• Once the characteristic data pattern of a process has been determined, the pattern can be utilized to predict the limits within which future data can be expected to fall as a matter of chance, and to determine when significant variations in the process have taken place.
Data Analysis:
Data can be analyzed by using appropriate method of analysis:
t-test:
t-test for comparison of two populations. T-value is calculated and from t-value the P-value is noted from the table:
If
P>0.05; test is non-significant
And if
P<0.05; test is significant.
ANOVA:
It means analysis of variance and is used for comparison of more than 2 parameters.
The objective is to determine whether the major source of observed variations is by chance or assignable.
Types of variations:
Chance variations:
These variations are inevitable because any program of production and inspection has its own unique chance causes of variations which can not be controlled or eliminated and often cannot be identified.
Assignable variations:
These variations can usually be detected and corrected by statistical techniques. Assignable variations are usually caused by machine or a specific batch of production or a container.
Thus the use of SQC permits the:
• Evaluation of magnitude of chance variation of product quality.
• Detection of assignable variations of product quality by means of QC charts.
Sublimation
Definition:
It is conversion of a substance in solid state to a gaseous state, which is not accompanied by the formation of liquid phase.
It is similar in some aspects to the distillation process.
Process of sublimation:
At normal pressures, most of the chemical substances either compounds or elements have three different states of matter at various temperatures. In these circumstances, change from solid state to gaseous state requires a median state that is liquid.
On the other hand, some of the chemical substances such as compounds and elements at certain pressures go directly from solid state to the gaseous state. This occurs when the atmospheric pressure applied on the material is very less to inhibit the molecules from going out of the solid state i.e. a substance go through the process of sublimation only if the vapor pressure is less than that of the triple point for that substance.
Triple point:
The triple point is the point possessing a fixed pressure and temperature at which the solid, liquid and gaseous phases of a material are able to co-exist independently.
If the vapor pressure over the solid substance is more than that of the triple point, the solid will convert to vapor after passage through the liquid phase. The following phase diagram will help to understand the triple point.
Line OA:
In this diagram, line OA shows the melting points of the solid substance at different pressures. In this line, left side shows the existence of solid form while the right side shows the existence of liquid form. This line shows the points of co-existence of the solid and the liquid.
Line OB:
The line OB shows the vapor-pressure curve of the liquid at different temperatures. Above this line liquid phase exists and below this line vapor phase of the substance exists. This line shows the points of co-existence of the liquid and the vapors.
Line OC:
The line OC shows the sublimation curve of the solid. This line shows the points of co-existence of the solid and the vapors at different states of temperatures and pressure.
Point O:
In this diagram, the point O represents the triple point.
Enthalpy:
Enthalpy of sublimation is equal to the sum of enthalpy of fusion and enthalpy of vaporization.
Sublimation process represents an endothermic phase transition as shown by the phase diagram.
Examples:
Nearly all of the solids have some tendency of conversion from solid to gaseous state at a particular temperature and pressure.
Elements:
Cadmium, Zinc, Arsenic, Carbon
Compounds:
CO2 (Dry ice), NH4Cl
Uses:
Its most important use is in freeze-drying.
It is conversion of a substance in solid state to a gaseous state, which is not accompanied by the formation of liquid phase.
It is similar in some aspects to the distillation process.
Process of sublimation:
At normal pressures, most of the chemical substances either compounds or elements have three different states of matter at various temperatures. In these circumstances, change from solid state to gaseous state requires a median state that is liquid.
On the other hand, some of the chemical substances such as compounds and elements at certain pressures go directly from solid state to the gaseous state. This occurs when the atmospheric pressure applied on the material is very less to inhibit the molecules from going out of the solid state i.e. a substance go through the process of sublimation only if the vapor pressure is less than that of the triple point for that substance.
Triple point:
The triple point is the point possessing a fixed pressure and temperature at which the solid, liquid and gaseous phases of a material are able to co-exist independently.
If the vapor pressure over the solid substance is more than that of the triple point, the solid will convert to vapor after passage through the liquid phase. The following phase diagram will help to understand the triple point.
In this diagram, line OA shows the melting points of the solid substance at different pressures. In this line, left side shows the existence of solid form while the right side shows the existence of liquid form. This line shows the points of co-existence of the solid and the liquid.
Line OB:
The line OB shows the vapor-pressure curve of the liquid at different temperatures. Above this line liquid phase exists and below this line vapor phase of the substance exists. This line shows the points of co-existence of the liquid and the vapors.
Line OC:
The line OC shows the sublimation curve of the solid. This line shows the points of co-existence of the solid and the vapors at different states of temperatures and pressure.
Point O:
In this diagram, the point O represents the triple point.
Enthalpy:
Enthalpy of sublimation is equal to the sum of enthalpy of fusion and enthalpy of vaporization.
Examples:
Nearly all of the solids have some tendency of conversion from solid to gaseous state at a particular temperature and pressure.
Elements:
Cadmium, Zinc, Arsenic, Carbon
Compounds:
CO2 (Dry ice), NH4Cl
Uses:
Its most important use is in freeze-drying.
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