Percent

The term percent represents per hundred or divided by one hundred such as

2% = 2/100 and
35% = 35/100

In order to find x% of y, where x and y are real numbers, we multiply x% with y. For example,

30% of 500 => 30/100 x 500 = 150

On the other hand, in order to find that, x is what %age of y, we divide x and y and multiply it with 100. Here x and y are real numbers. For example,

7 is what percent of 14?
Here 7 is divided by 14 and multiplied by 100
7/14 x 100 = 50 %

If we want to find the %age increase, We can do as follows
Suppose, there is a number 400 which is increased by 50 numbers and becomes 450. We can detect percent increase by this way

50/400 x 100 = 12.5%

In order to detect %age decrease, we can do as follows
Suppose there is a number 200 which is decreased by 20 numbers and becomes 180, we can calculate % decrease by

20/200 x 100 = 10%

To detect %age increase, Suppose x is a number and y is its final increased state (any number) and z = y - x

Here z/x x 100 and to%age decrease , x is a number and y is decreased number and z = x - y, so z/x x 100.

Here x=base.

In the above examples, 400 and 200 are bases.

Further Reading:
Cracking the GRE, 2010 Edition (Graduate School Test Preparation)

Kaplan GRE Exam Vocabulary in a Box

Barron's GRE

Essential Words for the GRE (Barron's Essential Words for the GRE)

Kaplan GRE Exam 2010-2011 Premier with CD-ROM (Kaplan GRE Premier Program (W/CD))

GRE: Practicing to Take the General Test 10th Edition (Practicing to Take the Gre General Test)

Kaplan GRE Exam Math Workbook

Barron's GRE with CD-ROM

Kaplan GRE Exam 2009 Premier Program (w/ CD-ROM) (Kaplan Gre Exam Premier Live)

Deliquescence

It means to dissolve gradually by absorbing moisture from the air.

It is derived from the Latin word “deliquescere” literally “to start melting away”, from “liquere” that is “to be liquid”.

Deliquescent:

Deliquescent materials are substances (mostly salts) that have a strong affinity for moisture and will absorb relatively large amounts of water from the atmosphere if exposed to it, forming a liquid solution.

Explanation:

In deliquescence, the final more hydrated state must still exert a lower vapor pressure than that of the water vapor in the surrounding atmosphere.

If this is not so, then the newly formed hydrated state will immediately lose water by efflorescence and revert to the initial state.

Thus, for a liquid phase to be produced by deliquescence, it is necessary that the vapor pressure exerted by a saturated solution of the deliquescent material should be less than 13.33 x 10^2 N/m^2.

Examples:

The behavior of NaOH.H2O may be used as an example of deliquescence.

NaOH.H2O(v.p. is very low at 293K) --> (deliquescence) --> Saturated solution of NaOH (v.p. = 1.33x 10^2 N/m^2 at 293K) --> (further deliquescence) --> Unsaturated solution of NaOH (v.p. = v.p. of atmospheric pressure).

Other deliquescent materials include

Potassium hydroxide,

Sodium lactate,
Ferric ammonium citrate,

Potassium bicarbonate.

Example from everyday life:

In everyday life, people are most likely to come across deliquescence when they spill some instant coffee. This turns from a dry powder to sticky liquid when exposed to air for a few hours.

Reduction of Deliquescence:

Storage precautions for pharmaceutical preparations that are deliquescent are aimed at the maintenance of a moisture free atmosphere inside the container. Well closed containers should be used.

In addition, a well filled container limits the volume of atmosphere in the container and therefore further reduces the uptake of moisture by the product.

In some cases, when the product is particularly susceptible to moisture, a drying agent may be placed inside the container. Silica gel is often used in small packets.

Uses of Deliquescents:

1. Due to their very high affinity for water, these substances are often used as desiccants which is also an application for concentrated sulfuric and phosphoric acids

2. these substances are used in the chemical industry to remove the water produced by chemical reactions to increase the yields.

Multiple Choice Questions (MCQs) from Deliquescence in Pharmaceutics

1     Deliquescent salts use in chemical industry As A _______________

     A     Desiccants
     B     Efflorescent
     C     Anti oxidants
     D     None of the Above
--------------------
2     All these salts are deliquescent except ____________

     A     Magnesium iodide
     B     Lithium Sulphide
     C     Sodium Dichloro-isocyanurate dehydrate
     D     None of the Above
----------------------
3. The water absorb by the deliquescent salt cause A _____________ in melting point of solid

     A     Decrease
     B     Increase
     C     No change
     D     None of the Above
----------------------
4. When A solid absorb water from atmosphere it change into ______________ phase
       A     Liquid
       B     Solid
       C     Gas
       D     semisolid
-----------------------
5. Solid substances absorb enough water to lower is melting point below ____________

     A     Room temperature
     B     constant temperature
     C     45 C
     D     200 C
-----------------------

Answers of Multiple Choice Questions (MCQs) from Deliquescence in Pharmaceutics

1. A

2. C

3. A

4. A

5. A

(These MCQs are helpful for the preparation of Pharmacy Exams)

-----------------------

Further Reading:

Remington: The Science and Practice of Pharmacy (Remington the Science and Practice of Pharmacy)

Flashcard Study System for the PTCB Exam: PTCB Test Practice Questions & Review for the Pharmacy Technician Certification Board Examination

Tutorial Pharmacy

Pharmacy Student Survival Guide

Physical Pharmacy: Physical Chemical Principles in the Pharmaceutical Sciences

Martin's Physical Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences

Industrial Pharmacy

Multiple Choice Questions (MCQs) from Industrial Pharmacy

1. Industrial pharmacy is basically concerned with………

a. Dispensing of medicines
b. Storage of medicines
c. Preparation of medicines
d. All of above
-----------------------
2. To develop new drugs into effective medicines is the aim of ………

a. Retail pharmacy
b. Industrial pharmacy
c. Forensic pharmacy
d. Hospital pharmacy
-----------------------
3. Basic facilities for pharmaceutical industry are………

a. Water
b. Light
c. Gas
d. Labour
e. All of above
-----------------------
4. The proper site for pharmaceutical industry………

a. Should not be near a chemical industry
b. Must be near the city
c. Should be near a chemical industry
d. All are correct except “c”
-----------------------
5. Which one of the following is the advantage of industrial pharmacy……

a) Extemporaneous preparations
b) Bulk compounding
c) Quality assurance
d) All of above
e) b and c are correct
-----------------------

Answers of Multiple Choice Questions (MCQs) from Industrial Pharmacy

1. Answer is “c” that is “Preparation of medicines”

2. Answer is “b” that is “Industrial pharmacy”

3. Answer is “e” that is “All of above”

4. Answer is “d” that is “All are correct except c”

5. Answer is “e” that is “b and c are correct”

(These MCQs are helpful for the preparation of Pharmacy Exams)

---------------------------

Further Reading:

The theory and practice of industrial pharmacy,

Industrial Pharmacy

Pharmaceutical Manufacturing Handbook: Production and Processes (Pharmaceutical Development Series)

Remington: The Science and Practice of Pharmacy (Remington the Science and Practice of Pharmacy)

Ansel's Pharmaceutical Dosage Forms and Drug Delivery Systems

Calcination

 Multiple Choice Questions (MCQs) from Calcination in Pharmaceutics

1 .Calcination is used for………

a. Organic
b. Radio-active
c. In-organic
d. None of above
------------------------
2. Calcination takes place at a temperature sufficiently high without………

a. Fusion
b. Fission
c. Boiling
d. None of these
-------------------------
3. Another name of Calcii Hydroxidum is……

a. Calcium sulphate
b. Calcium oxalate
c. Calcium hydroxide
d. Calcium carbonate
------------------------
4. Calcination is used in…….process:-

a. Quantitative
b. Qualitative
c. Volumetric
d. Gravimetric
---------------------

Answers to  Multiple Choice Questions (MCQs) from Calcination in Pharmaceutics

1. Answer is “c” that is “In-organic”
2. Answer is “a” that is “Fusion”
3. Answer is “c” that is “Calcium hydroxide”
4. Answer is “d” that is “Gravimetric”

(These MCQs are helpful for the preparation of Pharmacy Exams)
--------------------
Further Reading:
Flashcard Study System for the PTCB Exam: PTCB Test Practice Questions & Review for the Pharmacy Technician Certification Board Examination

Tutorial Pharmacy

Remington: The Science and Practice of Pharmacy (Remington the Science and Practice of Pharmacy)

Physical Pharmacy: Physical Chemical Principles in the Pharmaceutical Sciences

Martin's Physical Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences

Applied Physical Pharmacy

Animals

You who believe! Fulfil your contracts. All livestock animals are lawful for you, except those that are recited to you now; but it is still not lawful to hunt while you are in the state of pilgrimage. Allah makes whatever judgements He wills. (1)
(Holy Quran, Surah Al-Ma’ida (The Table, The Table Spread), Surah # 5: Ayah # 1)

And horses, mules and donkeys both to ride and for adornment. And He creates other things
you do not know. (8)
(Holy Quran, Surah An-Nahl (The Bee), Surah # 16: Ayah # 8)

Alms

Perform prayer and give the alms and bow with those who bow. (43)
(Holy Quran, Surah Al Baqarah (The Heifer), Surah # 2: Ayah # 43)

Perform prayer and give the alms and obey the Messenger so that hopefully mercy will be
shown to you.
(Holy Quran, Surah Al Nur (The light), Surah # 24: Ayah # 56)

ALLAH

Remember Me–I will remember you. Give thanks to Me and do not be ungrateful. (152)
(Holy Quran, Surah Al Baqarah (The Heifer), Surah # 2: Ayah # 152)


If My servants ask you about Me, I am near. I answer the call of the caller when he calls on Me. They should therefore respond to Me and believe in Me so that hopefully they will be rightly guided. (186)
(Holy Quran, Surah Al-Baqarah (The Heifer), Surah # 2: Ayah #186)

Worship Allah and do not associate anything with Him. Be good to your parents and relatives and to orphans and the very poor, and to neighbours who are related to you and neighbours who are not related to you, and to companions and travellers and your slaves. Allah does not love anyone vain or boastful. (36)
(Holy Quran, Surah An-Nisa’ (Women), Surah # 4: Ayah #36)

O mankind! Have fear of your Lord Who created you from a single self and created its mate from it and then disseminated many men and women from the two of them. Have fear of Allah in Whose name you make demands on one another and also in respect of your families. Allah watches over you continually. (1)
(Holy Quran, Surah An-Nisa’(Women), Surah # 4: Ayah # 1)

Worship Allah and do not associate anything with Him. Be good to your parents and relatives and to orphans and the very poor, and to neighbours who are related to you and neighbours who are not related to you, and to companions and travellers and your slaves. Allah does not love anyone vain or boastful. (36)
(Holy Quran, Surah An-Nisa’(Women), Surah # 4: Ayah # 36)

You who believe! Obey Allah and obey the Messenger and those in command among you. If you have a dispute about something, refer it back to Allah and the Messenger, if you believe in Allah and the Last Day. That is the best thing to do and gives the best result. (4:59)
(Holy Quran, Surah An-Nisa’(Women), Surah # 4: Ayah # 59)

You who believe! Be upholders of justice, bearing witness for Allah alone, even against yourselves or your parents and relatives. Whether they are rich or poor, Allah is well able to look after them. Do not follow your own desires and deviate from the truth. If you twist or turn away, Allah is aware of what you do. (135) You who believe! Believe in Allah and His Messenger and in the Book He sent down to His Messenger, and the Books He sent down before. Anyone who rejects Allah and His angels and His Books and His Messengers and the Last Day has gone very far astray. (136)
(Holy Quran, Surah An-Nisa’ (Women), Surah # 4: Ayah # 135-136)

Remember Allah’s blessing to you and the covenant He made with you when you said, ‘We hear and we obey.’ Have fear of Allah. Allah knows what the heart contains. (7)
(Holy Quran, Surah Al-Ma’ida (The Table, The Table Spread), Surah # 5: Ayah # 7)

You who believe! Remember Allah’s blessing to you when certain people were on the verge of raising their hands against you and He held their hands back from you. Have fear of Allah. The believers should put their trust in Allah. (11)
(Holy Quran, Surah Al-Ma’ida (The Table, The Table Spread), Surah # 5: Ayah # 11)

The people of the Gospel should judge by what Allah sent down in it. Those who do not judge by what Allah has sent down, such people are deviators. (47)
(Holy Quran, Surah Al-Ma’ida (The Table, The Table Spread), Surah # 5: Ayah # 47)

You who believe! Have fear of Allah and seek the means of drawing near to Him, and strive in His Way, so that hopefully you will be successful. (35)
(Holy Quran, Surah Al-Ma’ida (The Table, The Table Spread), Surah # 5: Ayah # 35)

And We have sent down the Book to you with truth, confirming and conserving the previous Books. So judge between them by what Allah has sent down and do not follow their whims and desires deviating from the Truth that has come to you. We have appointed a law and a practice for every one of you. Had Allah willed, He would have made you a single community, but He wanted to test you regarding what has come to you. So compete with each other in doing good. Every one of you will return to Allah and He will inform you regarding the things about which you differed. (48)
(Holy Quran, Surah Al-Ma’ida (The Table, The Table Spread), Surah # 5: Ayah # 48)

Eat the lawful and good things Allah has provided for you, and have fear of Allah, Him in Whom you believe. (88)
(Holy Quran, Surah Al-Ma’ida (The Table, The Table Spread), Surah # 5: Ayah # 88)

You who believe! Do not ask about matters which, if they were made known to you, would make things difficult for you. If you do ask about them when the Qur’an is being sent down, they will be made known to you. Allah has ignored them. Allah is Ever-Forgiving, All-Forbearing. (101)
(Holy Quran, Surah Al-Ma’ida (The Table, The Table Spread), Surah # 5: Ayah # 101)

Say: ‘Come and I will recite to you what your Lord has made forbidden for you’: that you do not associate anything with Him; that you are good to your parents; that you do not kill your children because of poverty–We will provide for you and them; that you do not approach indecency– outward or inward; that you do not kill any person Allah has made inviolate–except with the right to do so. That is what He instructs you to do so that hopefully you will use your intellect. (151) And that you do not go near the property of orphans before they reach maturity–except in a good way; that you give full measure and full weight with justice–We impose on no self any more than it can bear; that you are equitable when you speak–even if a near relative is concerned; and that you fulfill Allah’s contract. That is what He instructs you to do, so that hopefully you will pay heed. (152) This is My Path and it is straight, so follow it. Do not follow other ways or you will become cut off from His Way. That is what He instructs you to do, so that hopefully you will guard against evil. (153)
(Holy Quran, Surah Al-An’am (The Cattle), Surah # 6: Ayah # 151-153)

Follow what has been sent down to you from your Lord and do not follow any protectors apart from Him. How little you remember! (3)
(Holy Quran, Surah Al-A’araf (The Heights), Surah # 7: Ayah # 3)

Call on your Lord humbly and secretly. He does not love those who overstep the limits. (55) Do not corrupt the earth after it has been put right. Call on Him fearfully and eagerly. Allah’s mercy is close to the good-doers. (56)
(Holy Quran, Surah Al-A’araf (The Heights), Surah # 7: Ayah # 55-56)

To Allah belong the Most Beautiful Names, so call on Him by them and abandon those who desecrate His Names. They will be repaid for what they did. (180)
(Holy Quran, Surah Al-A’araf (The Heights), Surah # 7: Ayah # 180)

Remember your Lord in yourself humbly and fearfully, without loudness of voice, morning and evening. Do not be one of the unaware. (205) Those who are in the presence of your Lord do not consider themselves too great to worship Him. They glorify His praise and they prostrate to Him. (206)
(Holy Quran, Surah Al-A’araf (The Heights), Surah # 7: Ayah # 205-206)

You who believe! Obey Allah and His Messenger. And do not turn away from him when you are able to hear. (20) Nor be like those who say, "We hear," but listen not: (21)
(Holy Quran, Surah Al-Anfal (The Spoils of War), Surah # 8: Ayah # 20-21)

You who believe! Do not betray Allah and His Messenger, and do not knowingly betray your trusts. (27)
(Holy Quran, Surah Al-Anfal (The Spoils of War), Surah # 8: Ayah # 27)

Know that when you take any booty a fifth of it belongs to Allah, and to the Messenger, and to close relatives, orphans, the very poor and travellers, if you believe in Allah and in what We sent down to Our servant on the Day of Discrimination, the day the two groups met–Allah has power over all things. (41)
(Holy Quran, Surah Al-Anfal (The Spoils of War), Surah # 8: Ayah # 41)

The hypocrites are afraid that a sura may be sent down about them, informing them of what is in their hearts. Say: ‘Go on mocking! Allah will expose everything you are afraid of.’ (64)
(Holy Quran, Surah Al-Tawbah (The Repentance) or Bara’ah (The Disavowal), Surah # 9: Ayah # 64)

You who believe! Have fear of Allah and be with the truly sincere. (119)
(Holy Quran, Surah Al-Tawbah (The Repentance) or Bara’ah (The Disavowal), Surah # 9: Ayah # 119)

The Unseen of the heavens and the earth belongs to Allah and the whole affair will be returned to Him. So worship Him and put your trust in Him. Your Lord is not unaware of what you do. (123)
(Holy Quran, Surah Hud (The Prophet Hud), Surah # 11: Ayah # 123)

‘Do not worship anyone but Allah! I am a warner and bringer of good news to you from Him.’ (2)
(Holy Quran, Surah Hud (The Prophet Hud), Surah # 11: Ayah # 2)

Do not rely on those who do wrong thus causing the Fire to afflict you, for you have no protector besides Allah; then you will not be helped. (113)
(Holy Quran, Surah Hud (The Prophet Hud), Surah # 11: Ayah # 113)

Allah makes those who believe firm with the Firm Word in the life of this world and the hereafter. But Allah misguides the wrongdoers. Allah does whatever He wills. (27)
(Holy Quran, Surah Ibrahim (The Prophet Abraham), Surah # 14: Ayah # 27)

This is a communication to be transmitted to mankind so that they may be warned by it and so that they will know that He is One God and so that people of intelligence will pay heed. (52)
(Holy Quran, Surah Ibrahim (The Prophet Abraham), Surah # 14: Ayah # 52)

So glorify your Lord with praise and be one of the prostrators. (98) And worship your Lord until what is Certain comes to you. (99)
(Holy Quran, Surah Al-Hijr, Surah # 15: Ayah # 98-99)

Be true to Allah’s contract when you have agreed to it, and do not break your oaths once they are confirmed and you have made Allah your guarantee. Allah knows what you do. (91)
(Holy Quran, Surah An-Nahl (The Bee), Surah # 16: Ayah # 91)

Do not sell Allah’s contract for a paltry price. What is with Allah is better for you if you only knew. (95)
(Holy Quran, Surah An-Nahl (The Bee), Surah # 16: Ayah # 95)

So eat from what Allah has provided for you, lawful and good, and be thankful for the blessing of Allah if it is Him you worship. (114)
(Holy Quran, Surah An-Nahl (The Bee), Surah # 16: Ayah # 114)

Do not say about what your lying tongues describe: ‘This is lawful and this is forbidden,’ inventing lies against Allah. Those who invent lies against Allah are not successful. (116)
(Holy Quran, Surah An-Nahl (The Bee), Surah # 16: Ayah # 116)

Be people of pure natural belief in Allah, not associating anything else with Him. As for anyone who associates others with Allah, it is as though he had fallen from the sky and the birds had seized him and carried him away or the wind had dropped him in a distant place. (31)
(Holy Quran, Surah Al-Hajj (The Pilgrimage), Surah # 22: Ayah # 31)

Strive for Allah with the striving due to Him. He has selected you and not placed any constraint upon you in the religion–the religion of your forefather Ibrahim. He named you Muslims before and also in this, so that the Messenger could be witness against you and you could be witnesses against all mankind. So perform prayer and give the alms and hold fast to Allah. He is your Protector–the Best Protector, the Best Helper. (78)
(Holy Quran, Surah Al-Hajj (The Pilgrimage), Surah # 22: Ayah # 78)

Put your trust in the Living, Who does not die and glorify Him with praise. He is well aware of the wrong actions of His servants. (58)
(Holy Quran, Surah Al-Furqan (The Criterion), Surah # 25: Ayah # 58)

(Believers are) those who do not call on any other god together with Allah and do not kill anyone Allah has made inviolate, except with the right to do so, and do not fornicate; anyone who does that will receive an evil punishment.
(Holy Quran, Surah Al-Furqan (The Criterion), Surah # 25: Ayah # 68)

So glory be to Allah when you start the night and when you greet the day. (17) Praise be to Him in the heavens and the earth, in the afternoon and when you reach midday. (18)
(Holy Quran, Surah Ar-Rum (The Romans, The Byzantines), Surah # 30: Ayah # 17-18)

So set your face firmly towards the Religion, as a pure natural believer, Allah’s natural pattern on which He made mankind. There is no changing Allah’s creation. That is the true Religion–but most people do not know it. (30)
(Holy Quran, Surah Ar-Rum (The Romans, The Byzantines), Surah # 30: Ayah # 30)

When Luqman said to his son, counselling him, ‘My son, do not associate anything with Allah. Associating others with Him is a terrible wrong.’ (13)
(Holy Quran, Surah Luqman (Luqman), Surah # 31: Ayah # 13)

And put your trust in Allah. Allah suffices as a Guardian. (3)
(Holy Quran, Surah Al-Ahzab (The confederates), Surah # 33: Ayah # 3)

And glorify Him in the morning and the evening. (42)
(Holy Quran, Surah Al-Ahzab (The confederates), Surah # 33: Ayah # 42)

Mankind! Remember Allah’s blessing to you. (3)
(Holy Quran, Surah Fatir (The Originator of the Creation), Surah # 35: Ayah # 3)

The judgement concerning anything you differ about is Allah’s concern. That is Allah, my Lord–I have put my trust in Him and to Him I turn. (10)
(Holy Quran, Surah Al-Shura (Consultation), Surah # 42: Ayah # 10)

Do not become faint-hearted and call for peace when you are uppermost and Allah is with you–He would never cheat you of your deeds. (35)
(Holy Quran, Surah Muhammad or Surah Al-Qital (The Fighting), Surah # 47: Ayah # 35)

O ye who believe! Put not yourselves forward before ALLAH and His Messenger; but fear ALLAH: for ALLAH is He Who hears and knows all things. (1)
(Holy Quran, Surah Al-Hujurat (The Chambers), Surah # 49: Ayah # 1)

You who believe! Avoid most suspicion. Indeed some suspicion is a crime. And do not spy and do not backbite one another. Would any of you like to eat his brother’s dead flesh? No, you would hate it. And have fear of Allah. Allah is Ever-Returning, Most Merciful. (12)
(Holy Quran, Surah Al-Hujurat (The Chambers), Surah # 49: Ayah # 12)

Prostrate before Allah and worship Him! (62)
(Holy Quran, Surah Al-Najm (The Star), Surah # 53: Ayah # 62)

You who believe! Have fear of Allah and believe in His Messenger. He will give you a double portion of His mercy and grant you a Light by which to walk and forgive you. Allah is Ever-Forgiving, Most Merciful. (28)
(Holy Quran, Surah Al-Hadid (The Iron), Surah # 57: Ayah # 28)

You who believe! Have fear of Allah and let each self look to what it has sent forward for Tomorrow. Have fear of Allah. Allah is aware of what you do. (18) Do not be like those who forgot Allah so He made them forget themselves. Such people are the deviators. (19)
(Holy Quran, Surah Al-Hushr (The Mustering), Surah # 59: Ayah #18-19)

You who believe! Do not let your wealth or children divert you from the remembrance of Allah. Whoever does that is lost. (9) Give from what We have provided for you before death comes to one of you and he says, ‘My Lord, if only you would give me a little more time so that I can give charity and be one of the righteous!’(10)
(Holy Quran, Surah Al Munafiqun (The Hypocrites), Surah # 63: Ayah 9-10)

Allah has prepared a terrible punishment for them. So have fear of Allah, people of intelligence–those who believe–Allah has sent down a reminder to you. (10)
(Holy Quran, Surah Al-Talaq (Divorce), Surah # 65: Ayah # 10)

You who believe! Repent to Allah. It may be that your Lord will erase your bad actions from you and admit you into Gardens with rivers flowing under them on the Day when Allah will not disgrace the Prophet and those who believed along with him. Their light will stream out ahead of them and on their right. They will say, ‘Our Lord, perfect our light for us and forgive us! You have power over all things.’ (8)
(Holy Quran, Surah Al-Tahrim (Prohibition), Surah # 66: Ayah # 8)

Pharmacy

Multiple Choice Questions (MCQs) from Introduction of Pharmacy

1. The word pharmacy derives its name from …………….. root, pharmakon meaning “drug”.

a. Spanish
b. Greek
c. Italian
d. German
-------------------
2. The …………………………..  is the most internationally recognized symbol of pharmacy.

a. Mortar & Pestle
b. Rx Pharmacy Symbol
c. Bowl Of Hygeia
d. The Show Globe
e. The Green Cross
f. The Salamander
---------------------
3. ……………………… are highly-trained and skilled health care professionals who perform various roles to ensure optimal health for their patients.

a. Pharmacists
b. Dispensers
c. Compounders
d. Drug Retailers
-----------------------
4. ……………………………provide direct patient care services that optimize the use of medication and promote health, wellness and disease prevention.

a. Hospital pharmacist
b. Chemist
c. Pharmacy Informaticist
d. Clinical Pharmacist
-----------------------
5. The Pharmacy is concerned with …………………

a. Manufacture
b. Formulation
c. Quality control
d. Dispensing of medicaments
e. All of the above.
--------------------------

Answers of Multiple Choice Questions (MCQs) from Introduction of Pharmacy

(1) b.

(2) c.

(3) a.

(4) d.

(5) e.
(These MCQs are helpful for the preparation of Pharmacy Exams)
---------------------------
Further Reading:
Pharmacy: An Introduction to the Profession

The Pharmacy Technicians Introduction to Pharmacy

Flashcard Study System for the PTCB Exam: PTCB Test Practice Questions & Review for the Pharmacy Technician Certification Board Examination

Tutorial Pharmacy

Micromeritics

Micromeritics is the study of finer particles which are smaller in size.

The merits and demerits of fine particles as dosage forms are given below:

Advantages of fine powder as dosage form:
1. Flexibility or activity:
In powder form, all quantity of a drug becomes active but in tablet or capsule form all quantity of drug is not active and small quantity is excreted out as inactive drug for example, in powder form if we take 100 mg drug then all of 100 mg will be active while in 500 mg tablet 350 or 400 mg drug will be activated and remaining will be excreted out.

2. Stability:
Some drugs are more stable in dry powder form and their activity is reduced in solution form.
Moreover, drugs in powder form are completely hydrolyzed where as in tablets form it may be possibility that no total drug is hydrolyzed.

3. Rapid therapeutic effect:
The effect of a tablet or capsule is given below:
If drug is already available in powder form then it is rapidly absorbed and show rapid therapeutic effect than tablets.

4. Ease of administration:
In powder form smaller surface area of drug particles can be easily administered  but in tablets form there is a difficulty to swallow it.

Disadvantages of fine powder as dosage form:
1. Prevention due to acidity:
Some drugs become inactive due to acidity in stomach pH.
So we take them in enteric coating to prevent from acidity instead of taking in powder form.

2. Efflorescent, Deliquescent and hygroscopic:
Some drugs become efflorescent, deliquescent or hygroscopic in nature and we can not use them in powder form, so we take them in tablets or in capsule forms for preventing them.

3. Bitter in taste:
Some drugs are bitter in taste and we take them in tablet or in capsule form instead of powder form.
Their bitter taste is masked by coating.
Comminution:
It is a process by which we can reduce the size of a substance.

There are various methods of size reduction.
1. Manual Size reduction
2. Mechanical size reduction

Manual size reduction:
It can be done by one of the following methods or their combination.

These are used mostly on small scale.

1. Cutting:
In this method, sharp blades or knives are used to cut a material into small particles.
This method is used for those materials which are elastic in nature.

2. Compression:
By applying pressure larger molecules can be broken down into smaller pieces.

3. Impaction:
In this method, large particles are broken by heavy mass.
If we hit large particle with heavy mass or hit heavy mass with stationary large particle, the large particle is broken into pieces.

4. Attrition:
In this method, large particles are crushed down into small pieces between two opposite moving surfaces.

5. Trituration:
Grinding of solid into powder is done by continuous stirring or rubbing the particle in mortar with pestle.
Trituration is also used for mixing of two or more substances.
Here different types of mortar and pestles can be used.

6. Levigation:
It is also called as wet grinding.
In this size of substance is reduced to finer state by triturating the substance with few drops of liquid in which it is insoluble.
Substances are used: oil, water, glycerine and alcohol.
This process is often used to incorporate the solid substances into dermatological and ophthalmic preparations.
After mixing, levigation continue for this purpose, mortar and pestle, spatula and glass slabs are used.
In this you will get fine paste.

7. Pulverization by intervention:
In this method, solid substance is reduced to a fine powder by means of triturating the solid with a suitable solvent which is easily removed at the end for example camphor is difficult to reduce in size because as it reduces in size. It cohere with each other but when few drops of alcohol, ether, chloroform, it can be powdered easily and these substances evaporate.

Mechanical method:
On large scale, size reduction is carried out mostly by using different kinds of mills which have capacity of producing powder of wide range of particle size. As different mills are used to reduce the particle size hence it is also known as milling.

Various mills are ball mill, hammer mill, colloidal mill etc.

Grading of powders:
1. Very coarse:
All particles pass through sieve number 8 and not more than 20% through sieve number 60.

2. Coarse:
All particles pass through sieve number 20 and not more than 40% through sieve number 60.

3. Moderately coarse:
All particles pass through sieve number 40 and not more than 40% pass through sieve number 80.

4. Fine:
All particles pass through sieve number 60 and not more than 40% through sieve number 80.

5. Very fine:
All particles pass through sieve number 80 and there is no limit for greater finest.

Methods used to determine the size:
The following methods are used to determine the size of particles and to separate them:

1. Seiving method:
This is the most common applicable method. By this method, we can get 50-5000micrometer.
In this method, different sieves are arranged together, when material is put over the sieves and sieves are shaken. We get finest powder at the last while the remaining material is present in above sieves which entrap them according to size of their holes. So in this way size of powder is determined.

2. By microscopy:
We can measure the size of particles of powder by microscope.
The particles whose size ranges from 1-25 micron can be measured under microscope.
When a prepared slide of material is examined under microscope then the microscope has a micrometer by which we can determine the size of particles.
The advantage of this method is that we can measure the size of particle directly.

3. Sedimentation method:
This method is based on sedimentation time i.e. How much time is taken to settle down the particles of powder from dispersion medium.
The apparatus used in this method is called as Andreasen apparatus.
The larger particles settle down rapidly while smaller particles take sometime to settle down.
So, larger sedimented particles are taken out by the tube from the bottom and remaining are the fine particles.

4. Elutriation method:
This method is used for the separation of different sized particles of the powder.

Importance of particle size in pharmacy:
1. Size reduction increases the surface area of drugs, which helps in solution formation and bioavailability increases.
2. Mixing is easier and uniform.
3. Rate of drying is enhanced, if particle size is reduced.
4. Stability of emulsion is increased by decreasing the size of globules.
5. Rate of absorption will be greater when the particle size is small.
6. In case of suspension, very small particles result in formation of cake and very large particles settles quickly but we should have to form loose cake because it redisperse upon shaking.
7. Physical appearance of ointments, paste and creams can be improved.
8. Stability of some drugs increase in powder form and decrease in solution form.
9. Powdered drugs are easily administered than solid dosage forms.

Multiple Choice  Questions (MCQs) from Micromeritics in Pharmaceutics

1. ……………..  Is the science and technology of small particles.

(a) Nanotechnology
 (b) Micromeritics
(c) Molecular Chemistry
(d) None of above
------------------
2. Increase the particle size increase will be,

(a)Absorption
(b) Distribution
(c) Both a and b
(d) None of above
-----------------
3. Particle size can be reduced by,

(a) Mortar and pestle
(b) Sieve
(c) Grinder
(d) Both a and c
---------------
4. Sedimentation rate can be decreased by …………. Particle size,

(a) Increase
(b) Decrease
(c) Unchanged
(d) None of above
-------------------
5. Which is smallest,

(a) Micrometer
(b) Millimeter
(c) Nanometer
(d) Catharometer
------------------

Answers to Multiple Choice  Questions (MCQs) from Micromeritics in Pharmaceutics

1. Micromeritics,

2. None of above,

3. Both a and c,

4. Decrease,

5. Nanometer
---------------
Further Reading:
Micromeritics,: The technology of fine particles

Tutorial Pharmacy

Textbook of Pharmaceutics

Remington: The Science and Practice of Pharmacy (Remington the Science and Practice of Pharmacy)

British Pharmacopoeia 2010

USP NF 2009 (United States Pharmacopeia/National Formulary)

Effervescence

Multiple Choice Question (MCQs) from Efflorescence in Pharmaceutics

1. Loss of water (or a solvent) of crystallization from a hydrated or solvated salt to the atmosphere on exposure to air is called ………… .

(a) Efflorescence   
 (b) Hygroscopy
(c) Deliquescent
(d) Hydration
-------------------
2. After efflorescence color of NaCl becomes,

(a)  Blue                 
(b) White         
(c) Decolorization
(d) Orange
------------------
3. During efflorescence the water of crystallization ………… the substance,

(a)   Enters             
(b)   Leaves        
(c)   None of above
(d)   Both a and b
-----------------
4. After efflorescence the substance becomes,

(a)    Liquid              
(b)   Gas              
(c)   Solid              
(d)   None of above
---------------
5. Increasing the temperature of atmosphere will cause …………. in efflorescence,

(a)  Increase           
(b) Decrease       
(c) No change      
(d) Both a and b
----------------

Answers to Multiple Choice Question (MCQs) from Efflorescence in Pharmaceutics

1. Efflorescence,

2. White,

3. Leaves,

4. Solid,

5. Increase
-----------------
Further Reading:
Tutorial Pharmacy

Textbook of Pharmaceutics

BENTLEY'S TEXT-BOOK OF PHARMACEUTICS

Applied Pharmaceutics in Contemporary Compounding

Aulton's Pharmaceutics: The Design and Manufacture of Medicines

Remington's Pharmaceutical Sciences

Pharmaceutical Incompatibility (MCQs)

(For detailed study of Pharmaceutical Incompatibility Click here)

Multiple Choice Questions (MCQs) from Pharmaceutical Incompatibility in Dispensing

1. There are ………. Types of incompatibility.

(a)       1        
(b)       2        
(c)       3            
(d)       4
-------------
2. Liquification is the example of ………….. Incompatibility.

(a)    Immediate
(b)    Delayed
(c)    Instantaneous
(d) Both a and b
--------------------
3. Crystallization is an example of …………... Incompatibility.
 
(a)   Immediate
(b)   Delayed 
(c)   Instantaneous
(d)   Both a and b
------------------
4. Physical change may almost be ……….. .

(a)    Visible        
(b)    Invisible
(c)    Clear         
(d)    Turbid
---------------------
5. ……………. Compatibility may be corrected by changing the order of mixing.

(a)   Delayed       
(b)   Immediate
(c)   Tolerated    
(d)   Adjusted
--------------------

Answers to Multiple Choice Questions (MCQs) from Pharmaceutical Incompatibility in Dispensing 

1. Three,

2. Instantaneous/immediate,

3. Delayed,

4. Visible,

5. Tolerated.

(This blog is helpful for the preparation of pharmacy exams)

--------------------
Further Reading:
Cooper and Gunn's Dispensing for Pharmaceutical Students

Incompatibility in prescriptions and how to avoid it;: To which is added a dictionary of incompatibilities

Incompatibilities in prescriptions: For students in pharmacy and medicine and practicing pharmacists and physicians

Incompatibilities in prescriptions,: For students in pharmacy and medicine, practicing pharmacists and physicians,

Prescription writing: Including weights and measures, preparation of solutions, doses, administration and incompatibilities

Real numbers

These are numbers including integers and all the other numbers with values present between them such as 22/7, 2.5, square root of 5 etc.

Further Reading:
Cracking the GRE, 2010 Edition (Graduate School Test Preparation)

Kaplan GRE Exam Vocabulary in a Box

Barron's GRE

Essential Words for the GRE (Barron's Essential Words for the GRE)

Kaplan GRE Exam 2010-2011 Premier with CD-ROM (Kaplan GRE Premier Program (W/CD))