Pharmacology viva preparation (Introduction)

Theory:

Q: 1. What is Handerson Hasselbalch equation?
Ans. This is used to determine the relative concentration of the protonated and unprotonated form of the drug which is determined by pH at the site of diffusion and by the strength of weak acid or base (pKa).

log Protonated/Unprotonated = pKa - pH

Q: 2. What is Young's formula for calculating the dosage of children?
Ans. Child dose = Adult dose x Age in Years / Age + 12

Q: 3. What is Dilling's formula for calculating the dosage of children?
Ans. Child dose = Adult dose x Age in years / 20

Q: 4. What is Clark's formula for calculating the dosage of children?
Ans: Child dose = Adult dose x Weight in pounds / 150

Q: 5. What do you know about Placebo?
Ans. It is any inactive compound used to satisfy patient's need for drug therapy and in research it is used for controlled studies for the determination of medicinal substances.

Practical:

Q: 6. What is function of glucose in Tyrode's solution?
Ans. It is used to provide nutrition.

Q: 7. What is the function of NaCl, KCl and CaCl2 in tyrode's solution?
Ans. These are used to maintain isotonicity and electrical neutrality.

Q: 8. What is the function of NaHCO3 and NaH2PO4 in tyrode's solution?
Ans. These are used to maintain pH between 7.3-7.6.

Q: 9. What is the function of MgCl2 in the tyrode's solution?
Ans. These are used to regulate motility of the intestine.

Viva from out of course of Pharmacology (Remember Ayah number, Surah number and What the ayah wants to tell):
Q: 10. What is mentioned in Holy Qur'an about walking arrogantly on the Earth?
Ans. It is mentioned in Holy Qur'an:

"(Luqman said,) Do not avert your face from people out of haughtiness and do not strut about arrogantly on the earth. Allah does not love anyone who is vain or boastful. (18)"
(Surah Luqman (Luqman), Surah # 31: Ayah # 18)

Classification of Anti-microbials and Thyroid hormones

Q: 1. Name anti-microbials that act through inhibition of cell wall synthesis?
Ans. Penicillins, Cephalosporins, Cycloserine, Vancomycin, Bacitracin, Ristocetin

Q: 2. Name anti-microbials that act through the inhibition of cell membrane function?Ans. Amphotericin B, Nystatin, Imidazoles, Colistin, Polymyxins

Q:3. Name anti-microbials that act through inhibition of protein synthesis?
Ans. Chloramphenicol, Tetracyclines, Aminoglycosides, Erythromycin, Lincomycin

Q:4. Name anti-microbials that act through inhibition of nucleic acid synthesis?
Ans. Sulfonamides, Trimethoprim, Pyrimethamine, Rifampin, Quinolones, Novobiocin

Q:5. Classify thyroid hormones.
Ans:

(A) Endogenous:
Thyroxine (T4), Triiodothyronine (T3)

(B) Animal Origin:
Desiccated thyroid

(C) Synthetic:
Levothyroxine, Liothyronine, Liotrix

Q: 7. Classify drugs interfering with the synthesis of thyroid hormones (Anti-thyroid drugs).

Ans.
(1) Thioamides:
Propylthiouracil, Thiourea, Thiouracil

(2) Anion Inhibitors:
Perchlorate, Thiocyanate

Q:8. Classify drugs preventing release of thyroid hormones (Anti-thyroid drug).

Ans.

(A) Iodides:
KI, NaI

(B) Iodinated contrast media:
Ipodate, Iopanoic acid

Q: 9. Name the drug causing thyroid gland destruction.
Ans. Radioactive Iodine (I-131)

Q: 10. Prove from the current scientific knowledge that this universe obeys ALLAH?
Ans. According to Alan Guth’s Inflation theory in Physics, after the birth of universe, its size doubles every 10 ^-34 seconds. This doubling took place for not more than 10 ^-30 seconds.

Within this short time, universe expands from something you could hold in hand to something at least 10 ^ 25 times bigger.

In this extremely small interval of time gravity emerged, later on joined by strong and weak nuclear forces, later on joined by elementary particles. From nothing at all, suddenly there were a very large mass of electrons, protons, neutrons and much more.

ALLAH has said in Holy Qur’an:

The Originator of the heavens and earth. When He decides on something, He just says to it, ‘Be!’ and it is. (Surah Al-Baqarah, Surah # 2: Ayah # 117)

Classification of Anti-emetic drugs and laxatives

Q:1. How do you classify anti-emetic drugs?

Ans.

(A) Central Anti-emetics:

(1) Dopamine D2-Receptor Antagonist:
Haloperidol

(2) Sedative-Hypnotics:
Barbiturates, Benzodiazepines

(B) Central and Peripheral Antiemetics:
(1) D2 receptor antagonists:
Metacloperamide, Domperidone

(2) 5-HT3 receptor antagonists:
Ondansetron, Granisetron

(3) Anti-muscarinics:
Scopolamine, Atropine

(4) H1 receptor antagonists:
Ceclizine, Meclizine, Dimenhydrinate

(C) Peripheral antiemetics:
(1) Demulcents:
Gum acacia, Gum tragacanth

(2) Adsorbents:
Kaolin, Aluminium hydroxide

(3) Gastric mucosal anesthetics:
Chlorbutanol

Q: 2. How do you classify anti-diarrheals?

Ans.
(1) Gastrointestinal protectives and adsorbents:
Bismuth subsalicylate, Attapulgite, Pectin, Kaolin

(2) Astringents:
Drugs that have the ability of releasing tannic acid e.g. catechin

(3) Anti-motility drugs
(a) Antimuscarinics:
Mepenzolate, Propantheline, Atropine

(b) Opioid derivatives:
Codeine, Loperamide

Q: 3. How do you classify bulk laxatives?

Ans.
(1) Hydrophilic colloids:
Agar, Psyllium seeds and husks, Bran

(2) Osmotic laxatives:
(a) Saline Cathartics:
Magnesium hydroxide, Magnesium citrate

(b) Lactulose

Q: 4. How do you classify Stimulant laxatives?

Ans.
(1) Mild stimulants
Figs, Prunes, Castor oil

(2) Moderate stimulants:
Phenolphthalein, Bisacodyl

(3) Severe stimulants:
Croton oil, Colocynth,

Q:5. Classify stool softeners?

Ans.

(1) Surface active agents:
Docusate sodium, Poloxamers such as poloxalkol

(2) Mineral oils:
Liquid paraffin

Viva from out of course of Pharmacology:

Q: 6. What is the effect of Quranic Recitation on Alzheimer’s disease (A. D.) ?

Ans.

Name of Journal:
Journal of Neurobiology of Aging

Article title:
The effect of voice of Holy QURAN to decrease aggressive behaviors in people with A. D.

Researchers and Year:
Abdollahzadeh et al. in 2000

Effects:
They have found that Quranic recitation after a 4 week observation period causes a

1. Decrease in aggressive behavior of patients with alzheimer’s disease.

2. General increase in remembrance of past memories.

Introduction of Pharmacology and Pharmacokinetics

Q: 1. What is the definition of drug?
Ans. Any substance intended for use in the diagnosis, cure, treatment, prevention or mitigation of disease in man or some other living things.

Q:2. What is the meaning of generic?
Ans. Any item or product that is sold without using brand name.

Q: 3. What do you mean by brand name?
Ans. It is also called as trade name. It is that name of the drug given to a drug or chemical, for sale, by a manufacturer in agreement with the regulating agencies.

Q: 4. What is pharmacopoeia?
Ans. It is an official book containing an authoritative list of medicines, formulae of these drugs, and standards appropriate for their strength such as USP is the Pharmacopoeia for Britain.

Q: 5. What is the difference between pharmacy and pharmacology?
Ans. The art or science, practice or profession of preparing, preserving, compounding, and dispensing drugs used as medical treatments is pharmacy whereas pharmacology talks with special reference to the mechanism of action of the drug on a (particular) disease.

Q: 6. What do you mean by liberation? Liberation is the process of drug release from the dosage form in which it is corporated.

Q: 7. What do you mean by Absorption?

Q: 8. What do you mean by Distribution?

Q: 9. What do you mean by Metabolism?

Q: 10. What do you mean by Excretion?

Q: 11. Briefly tell about the LADME scheme?

Q: 12. What are the input processes?

Q: 13. What are the output processes?
Q: 14. Shortly tell the factors affecting absorption?

Ans. (A) Factors related to Drug:
(1) Chemical Nature
(2) Dosage Form
(3) Degree of ionization
(4) Lipid water partition coefficient
(B) Factors related to Patient:
(1) Route of Administration
(2) State of health of the absorbing surface
(3) Rate of general circulation

Q: 15. Shortly tell the factors affecting drug distribution?
Ans. (A) Physical and Chemical Factors
(1) Molecular weight
(2) Ionization
(B) Capillary permeability
(C) Binding of drugs to plasma proteins
(D) Tissue affinity
(E) Blood flow

Viva from out of course of Pharmacology (Remember Ayah Number, Surah Number and What the Ayah wants to tell):

Q: 16. What ALLAH has said about arguments (discussion or talking)?
Ans. ALLAH has said in Holy Qur'an:

"Call to the way of your Lord with wisdom and fair admonition, and argue with them in the kindest way. Your Lord knows best who is misguided from His way. And He knows best
who are guided. (125)
(Surah An-Nahl (The Bee), Surah # 16: Ayah #125)"

Ans. Distribution, Metabolism and Excretion are considered as the processes for output.

Ans. Liberation and absorption are considered as the processes for input of the drug.

Ans. It describes the pharmacokinetic processes and short form for Liberation, Absorption, Distribution, Metabolism and Excretion. After the drug is taken it is (1) liberated in the stomach, (2) absorbed by the stomach and intestine, (3) From there distributed in the blood (4) Metabolised in the liver and (5) Eliminated through the pulmonary, biliary or kidney processes.

Ans. It is the process of elimination of the drug either unchanged form or metabolites from the body.

Ans. It is the process in which drug is changed from one form to another which is comparatively easier to eliminate.

Ans. It is the process of diffusion or transfer of drugs from inside blood vessels to outside of blood vessels.

Ans. Absorption is the process of drug movement to the circulating blood from the administration site.

Ans.

Swine flu

Swine flu:
Swine flu was a respiratory disease of pigs. Its mutation in March 2009 has started the outbreak of new strain of Influenza virus (H1N1) that can cause infections in humans. 64 cases have been reported in United States in which 45 are only in New York to the date 28 April, 2009. (CDC)

Diagnosis and Treatment:
rRT-PCR Swine Flu Panel diagnostic test is used for the diagnosis of this virus. Relenza and Tamiflu antiviral products have been reported for the use against this virus. (Medline Plus)

Source:
Centers for Disease control and Prevention (CDC)

U. S. National Library of Medicine (Medline Plus)

Lectures on some Pharmacological Topics

1. Factors affecting drug distribution

2. G-Protein Receptor

3. G-Protein Receptor (Take II)

4. Diuretic action in Kidney

5. Agonists and Antagonists

6. Acid-Base Interaction

7. Inner workings of Enzyme Cytochrome P-450 2C9

8. Aspirin (Absorption and deprotonation)

9. Signal Transduction

Source:
University of Rhode Island

Parasympathomimetic Drugs

Q: 1. Classify parasympathomimetic drugs?
Ans:

(A)Direct acting:

(1)Muscarinic agonists:

(a)Choline Esters:

Bethanechol

(b)Alkaloids:

Muscarine, Pilocarpine, Oxotremorine

(2)Nicotinic agonists:

Alkaloids:

Nicotine, Lobeline

(3)Mixed agonists:

Choline esters:

Acetylcholine, Methacholine, Carbachol

(B)Indirect acting (Anti-Cholinesterase)

(1)Reversible:

(a)Quaternary alcohols:

Edrophonium

(b)Carbamate esters:

Neostigmine, Physostigmine, Ambenonium

(2)Irreversible:

Organophosphate compounds:

Echothiofate, Parathion, Melathoin

Q: 2. Classify Parasympatholytic drugs.

Ans.

(A)Anti-Muscarinic drugs:

(1)Natural alkaloids:

Atropine, Scopolamine (Hyoscine)

(2)Synthetic

(a)Mydriatic:

Homatropine, Eucatropine, Tropicamide

(b)Anti-Parkinsonism:

Benzhexol, Benztropine

(c)Anti-asthmatics:

Ipratropium

(d)Gastrointestinal and Genitourinary:

(i)Tertiary amines:

Pirenzepine, Dicyclomine, Oxybutynin

(ii)Quaternary amines:

Propantheline, Mepenzolate

(B)Anti-Nicotinic drugs:

(1)Ganglion blockers:

(a)Depolarizers:

Nicotine

(b)Competitive:

(i)Secondary amines:

Mecamylamine

(ii)Tertiary amines:

Pempidine

(iii)Quaternary amines:

Hexamethonium, Trimethaphan

(2)Neuromuscular blockers:

(a)Depolarizers:

Succinylcholine, Decamethonium

(b)Competitive:

Tubocurarine, Atracurium, Gallamine

(C)Cholinesterase regenerators:

Pralidoxime

Q: 3. What ALLAH has said about Seafood in Holy Qur’an?Ans: ALLAH has said in Holy Qur’an:“Anything you catch in the sea is lawful for you, and all food from it, for your enjoyment and that of travelers, but land game is forbidden for you while you are in the state of pilgrimage.So have fear of Allah, Him to Whom you will be gathered. (96)
(Surah Al-Ma’ida (The Table, The Table Spread), Surah # 5: Ayah # 96)”

Q: 4. What ALLAH has said about saying "Insha ALLAH"?
Ans:ALLAH has said in Holy Qur'an:

"Never say about anything, ‘I am doing that tomorrow,’(23) without adding ‘If Allah wills.’ Remember your Lord when you forget, and say, ‘Hopefully my Lord will guide me to something closer to right guidance than this.’(24)
(Surah Al-Kahf (The Cave), Surah # 18: Ayah # 23-24)"