Dispensing refers to the provision of medicine according to the prescription.
Following steps are involved in a Pharmacy setup:
1. Prescription: Medicines recommended by the physician as a remedy
2. Formulation: Darwing and expressing the medicines and ingredients of the prescription
3. Compounding: Preparing and mixing of the ingredients and/or medicines of the prescription
4. Dispensing: Giving the medicines to the patient. Medicines are given in a container with proper labelling. This label helps the patient for subsequent use of the medicine.
Dispensing may also involve the preparation of device for the use of patients.
Extemporaneous dispensing:Extemporaneous dispensing refers to the compounding and dispensing of medicines with little or no preparation in response to the stimulus of one's immediate environment.
Wednesday, March 9, 2011
Tuesday, March 8, 2011
Search Methods
Search methods are used in optimization.
In these methods, the response surfaces are examined by different methods in order to determine the combination of independent variables, so that the optimum results can be obtained. Response surface methodology is used to determine the connection between different explanatory variables (independent variables) and one or more of the response variables (dependent variables).
Following steps are followed in the search methods:
1. A system is selected
2. Independent and Dependent variables are selected
3. Experiments are performed and product is tested
4. Data is submitted (to computer) for statistical and regression analysis
5. Specifications are set for feasibility program
6. Constraints are set for grid search
7. Grid search printouts are evaluated
8. Partial derivative plots (single or composite) and contour plots are evaluated.
In these methods, the response surfaces are examined by different methods in order to determine the combination of independent variables, so that the optimum results can be obtained. Response surface methodology is used to determine the connection between different explanatory variables (independent variables) and one or more of the response variables (dependent variables).
Following steps are followed in the search methods:
1. A system is selected
2. Independent and Dependent variables are selected
3. Experiments are performed and product is tested
4. Data is submitted (to computer) for statistical and regression analysis
5. Specifications are set for feasibility program
6. Constraints are set for grid search
7. Grid search printouts are evaluated
8. Partial derivative plots (single or composite) and contour plots are evaluated.
Iron compounds (Pharmacology)
Iron occurs as tin in the liver and spleen from where it is released and utilized in the heme portion of hemoglobin, which constitutes about 65 % of the total iron in the body.
Daily requirement:
Daily iron requirement is about 0.5-1mg in normal adults.
Mechanism of action:
In the first step, Heme portion of hemoglobin is formed.
In the second step, Hemoglobin is formed.Hemoglobin is the compound for the transportation of oxygen from the lungs to the tissues.
Administration:
It can be given orally or parenterally.
Pharmacokinetics:
Absorption:
It is readily absorbed from duodenum and proximal jejunum. It is more easily absorbed in the form of ferrous ions (Fe2+) than ferric ions (Fe3+).
Distribution:
Ferrous ion is converted into ferric ion and is actively transported in the mucosal cells of the intestine. It is actively transported into the plasma through transferrin. In the liver and spleen, it is converted to ferritin and hemosiderin with the help of certain proteins and get stored.
Elimination:
Approximately 1 mg of the iron is wasted, by the shedding of the tissue surface of the intestinal mucosal cells, through feces and little amount is excreted via urine, sweat and bile.
Iron deficiency:
Iron deficiency occurs in:
1. Chronic or acute loss of blood
2. Inadequate taking in of iron by the children during the period of rapid growth
3. In severely menstruating or pregnant woman.
Therapeutic uses:
The above mentioned deficiencies can be removed by taking sufficient amount of iron in the form of its compounds from outside.
Oral iron preparations can be used for infants and the children in the period of rapid growth as well as for pregnant and lactating women. Whereas parenteral preparations can be taken by the patients who are unable to take orally or who have chronic or acute blood loss.
Dosage:
Oral preparations of iron such as ferrous fumarate, ferrous gluconate and ferrous sulfate can be taken as 3-4 tabs per day in divided doses. Whereas, parenteral preparation is available in the form of iron-sorbitol-citric acid complex and can be taken as 1.5 mg/kg IM upto a maximum of 100 mg per injection in single daily dose.
Adverse effects:
Oral iron preparations can cause nausea, constipation, abdominal cramps and epigastric discomfort. Whereas, parenteral preparations can cause headache, nausea, vomiting, fever, flushing, local pain and tissue staining.
Daily requirement:
Daily iron requirement is about 0.5-1mg in normal adults.
Mechanism of action:
In the first step, Heme portion of hemoglobin is formed.
In the second step, Hemoglobin is formed.Hemoglobin is the compound for the transportation of oxygen from the lungs to the tissues.
Administration:
It can be given orally or parenterally.
Pharmacokinetics:
Absorption:
It is readily absorbed from duodenum and proximal jejunum. It is more easily absorbed in the form of ferrous ions (Fe2+) than ferric ions (Fe3+).
Distribution:
Ferrous ion is converted into ferric ion and is actively transported in the mucosal cells of the intestine. It is actively transported into the plasma through transferrin. In the liver and spleen, it is converted to ferritin and hemosiderin with the help of certain proteins and get stored.
Approximately 1 mg of the iron is wasted, by the shedding of the tissue surface of the intestinal mucosal cells, through feces and little amount is excreted via urine, sweat and bile.
Iron deficiency:
Iron deficiency occurs in:
1. Chronic or acute loss of blood
2. Inadequate taking in of iron by the children during the period of rapid growth
3. In severely menstruating or pregnant woman.
Therapeutic uses:
The above mentioned deficiencies can be removed by taking sufficient amount of iron in the form of its compounds from outside.
Oral iron preparations can be used for infants and the children in the period of rapid growth as well as for pregnant and lactating women. Whereas parenteral preparations can be taken by the patients who are unable to take orally or who have chronic or acute blood loss.
Dosage:
Oral preparations of iron such as ferrous fumarate, ferrous gluconate and ferrous sulfate can be taken as 3-4 tabs per day in divided doses. Whereas, parenteral preparation is available in the form of iron-sorbitol-citric acid complex and can be taken as 1.5 mg/kg IM upto a maximum of 100 mg per injection in single daily dose.
Adverse effects:
Oral iron preparations can cause nausea, constipation, abdominal cramps and epigastric discomfort. Whereas, parenteral preparations can cause headache, nausea, vomiting, fever, flushing, local pain and tissue staining.
Anti-Anemic Drugs
Anti-anemic drugs are those agents, which are used for the treatment of anemic conditions.
Classification of Anti-anemic drugs:
Iron compounds:
Ferrous fumarate, Ferrous gluconate, Ferrous sulfate, Iron dextran Injection, Polyferose
Agents for Macrocytic anemia:
Vitamin B12, Folic Acid, Folinic Acid
Hematopoeitic growth factors:
Erythropoietin:
Epoetin alpha, Darbepoetin alpha
Granulocyte colony stimulating factor:
Filgrastim
Granulocyte-Macrophage colony stimulating factor:
Sargramostim
Interleukin:
Interleukin 3, Oprelvekin
Agent for Sickle cell anemia:
Hydroxyurea
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