p53

p53 helps in the regulation of transcription of variety of genes in response to different type of signals which are related to stress Riley et al.). p53 regulates the GI epithelial cells (Kirsch et al.).

Types of p53:
1. Mutant p53:
This type of p53 is responsible for transformation at 37.5 C whereas at 32.5 C it suppresses transformation working similar as that of wild type p53.

2. Wild type p53:
This type of p53 is not oncogenic and causes prevention of transformation. In human carcinogenesis, this type of p53 work as suppressor gene. (Michalovitz et al.)

p53 Pathway:
It is found to mediate stress responses in the cells. p53 has the ability of initiating repair of DNA, cell cycle arrest, senescence and apoptosis. (Vazquez et al.)

References:
Kirsch et al. (2010), p53 Controls Radiation-Induced Gastrointestinal Syndrome in Mice Independent of Apoptosis, Science, 327 (5965), 593-596.

Michalovitz et al. (1990), Conditional inhibition of transformation and of cell proliferation by a temperature-sensitive mutant of p53, Cell, 62(4), 671-680

Riley et al. (2008), Transcriptional control of human p53-regulated genes, Nature, 9, 402-431

Vazquez et al. (2008), The genetics of the p53 pathway, apoptosis and cancer therapy, Nat Rev Drug Discov.7(12), 979-987.
Further reading:
The p53 Tumor Suppressor Pathway and Cancer (Protein Reviews, Vol. 2)

TNM classification of malignant tumors

p53 as a Diagnostic Tool for the Detection of Cancer.: An article from: Journal of the Mississippi Academy of Sciences

Telomere shortening is associated with malformation in p53-deficient mice after irradiation during specific stages of development [An article from: DNA Repair]

Prognostic and Predictive Value of p53

Identification and phylogenetic comparison of p53 in two distinct mussel species (Mytilus) [An article from: Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology, Part C]

Optimization techniques

Optimization:

Optimization means to increase the effectiveness of something by choosing the best component or element or set of elements from different sets of other available possibilities.
In computer language, optimization means to write some program as concise as possible for rapid and more efficient retrieval, later on.

Optimizer or Defragger:

Optimization program is usually referred to as defragger or optimizer in computer world.

Optimization techniques:

Optimization techniques are basically collected mathematical rules and methods to solve quantitative problems in many of the fields of life like physics, engineering, biology, business and economics.

The growth of optimization techniques is collateral to not only to the computer science but also to numerical analysis, operations research, game theory control theory, mathematical economics and combinatorics.

Classes of optimization:

Linear programming:

In computer language, linear programming shows the procedure for making programs that help to find most optimum solutions for linear functions in sets of equations in which sufficient terms are not there to produce straightforward solution.

And in mathematical terms, it represents the way of searching the maximum and minimum numerical quantity of linear transformation with the use of variables that are likely to be affected by constraints.

Linear programming is applied in the following researches:

1. Papoutsakis ET: (1984). Equations and calculations for fermentations of butyric acid bacteria. Biotechnology and Bioengineering , 174-187.

2. Varma A, Palsson BO: (1994). Metabolic flux balancing – basic concepts, scientific and practical use. Biotechnology, 994-998.

3. Price ND, Reed JL, Palsson BO: (2004). Genome scale models of microbial cells: Evaluating the consequences constraints. Nature Reviews microbiology, 886-897

Nonlinear programming:

Some of the constraints in this type of programming may involve nonlinear functions i.e. may involve square roots or squares.

Nonlinear programming is applied in the following researches:

1. Mendes P, Kell DB: (1998). Nonlinear optimization of biochemical pathways: applications to metabolic engineering and parameter estimation. Bioinformatics, 869-883

2. Vo TD, Pallsson BO: (2006). Isotopomer analysis of myocardial substrate metabolism. A systems biology approach. Biotechnology and Bioengineering, 972-983

3. Vo TD, Lee WNP, Pallsson BO: (2007). Systems analysis of energy metabolism elucidates the affected respiratory chain complex in Leigh’s syndrome. Molecular Genetics and Metabolism, 15-22.

Stochastic programming:

In this class, constraints are dependent on random occurrences or variables, so that the optimum values can be found in some expected meanings as for example a stochastic model shows that system in which both chance events and planned events are taken into account.

Network optimization:
Here we consider, for optimization, some of the property related to flow of matter or variable through a network.

Combinatorial optimization:

Here in this solution is to be found among limited system of values which are also huge in number.

Types of thickening agents

There are three major groups of thickening agents:

1. Polysaccharides
    a. Natural
        i. Acacia
        ii. Tragacanth
        iii. Starch
        iv. Sodium Alginate
    b. Semi-synthetic:
        i. Methylcellulose
        ii. Hydroxyethylcellulose
       iii. Sodium carboxymethyl cellulose
       iv. Microcrystalline cellulose

2. Inorganic agents
    a. Clays
       i. Bentonite
       ii. Hectorite
       iii. Aluminium Magnesium silicate
    b. Aluminium hydroxide

3. Synthetic
   a.Carbomer (Carboxyvinyl polymer)
   b. Colloidal silicon dioxide

Actovegin

It is a deproteinized hemolysate obtained from Calf Blood.

It has the ability of enhancing the aerobic metabolism by increasing the use of glucose and oxygen and stimulates the formation of ATP. (1)

It has a neuroprotective action.

References:
(1) Boyarinov, G. A. et al. Effects of actovegin on the central nervous system during postischemic period . Bulletin of Experimental Biology and Medicine, Volume 126, Number 4 / October, 1998

TMPRSS2-ERG

It is a type of fusion gene. It has been found that 50-70% of prostate cancers are from TMPRSS2-ETS fusion prostate cancers. (1)


References:
Mosquera, J. M. et al., Morphological features of TMPRSS2-ERG gene fusion prostate cancer. Journal of Pathology, 2007 May; Volume 212 (1): pp. 91-101..

Free Journals online

You may get your papers from one of these important Websites containing free Articles:

1. Public library of Science

2. The Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America

3. BioMed Central: The Open Access Publisher

4. Cern Courier

5. Free Medical Journals

Pharmacology viva preparation (Introduction)

Theory:

Q: 1. What is Handerson Hasselbalch equation?
Ans. This is used to determine the relative concentration of the protonated and unprotonated form of the drug which is determined by pH at the site of diffusion and by the strength of weak acid or base (pKa).

log Protonated/Unprotonated = pKa - pH

Q: 2. What is Young's formula for calculating the dosage of children?
Ans. Child dose = Adult dose x Age in Years / Age + 12

Q: 3. What is Dilling's formula for calculating the dosage of children?
Ans. Child dose = Adult dose x Age in years / 20

Q: 4. What is Clark's formula for calculating the dosage of children?
Ans: Child dose = Adult dose x Weight in pounds / 150

Q: 5. What do you know about Placebo?
Ans. It is any inactive compound used to satisfy patient's need for drug therapy and in research it is used for controlled studies for the determination of medicinal substances.

Practical:

Q: 6. What is function of glucose in Tyrode's solution?
Ans. It is used to provide nutrition.

Q: 7. What is the function of NaCl, KCl and CaCl2 in tyrode's solution?
Ans. These are used to maintain isotonicity and electrical neutrality.

Q: 8. What is the function of NaHCO3 and NaH2PO4 in tyrode's solution?
Ans. These are used to maintain pH between 7.3-7.6.

Q: 9. What is the function of MgCl2 in the tyrode's solution?
Ans. These are used to regulate motility of the intestine.

Viva from out of course of Pharmacology (Remember Ayah number, Surah number and What the ayah wants to tell):
Q: 10. What is mentioned in Holy Qur'an about walking arrogantly on the Earth?
Ans. It is mentioned in Holy Qur'an:

"(Luqman said,) Do not avert your face from people out of haughtiness and do not strut about arrogantly on the earth. Allah does not love anyone who is vain or boastful. (18)"
(Surah Luqman (Luqman), Surah # 31: Ayah # 18)