Types of thickening agents

There are three major groups of thickening agents:

1. Polysaccharides
    a. Natural
        i. Acacia
        ii. Tragacanth
        iii. Starch
        iv. Sodium Alginate
    b. Semi-synthetic:
        i. Methylcellulose
        ii. Hydroxyethylcellulose
       iii. Sodium carboxymethyl cellulose
       iv. Microcrystalline cellulose

2. Inorganic agents
    a. Clays
       i. Bentonite
       ii. Hectorite
       iii. Aluminium Magnesium silicate
    b. Aluminium hydroxide

3. Synthetic
   a.Carbomer (Carboxyvinyl polymer)
   b. Colloidal silicon dioxide

Actovegin

It is a deproteinized hemolysate obtained from Calf Blood.

It has the ability of enhancing the aerobic metabolism by increasing the use of glucose and oxygen and stimulates the formation of ATP. (1)

It has a neuroprotective action.

References:
(1) Boyarinov, G. A. et al. Effects of actovegin on the central nervous system during postischemic period . Bulletin of Experimental Biology and Medicine, Volume 126, Number 4 / October, 1998

TMPRSS2-ERG

It is a type of fusion gene. It has been found that 50-70% of prostate cancers are from TMPRSS2-ETS fusion prostate cancers. (1)


References:
Mosquera, J. M. et al., Morphological features of TMPRSS2-ERG gene fusion prostate cancer. Journal of Pathology, 2007 May; Volume 212 (1): pp. 91-101..

Free Journals online

You may get your papers from one of these important Websites containing free Articles:

1. Public library of Science

2. The Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America

3. BioMed Central: The Open Access Publisher

4. Cern Courier

5. Free Medical Journals

Pharmacology viva preparation (Introduction)

Theory:

Q: 1. What is Handerson Hasselbalch equation?
Ans. This is used to determine the relative concentration of the protonated and unprotonated form of the drug which is determined by pH at the site of diffusion and by the strength of weak acid or base (pKa).

log Protonated/Unprotonated = pKa - pH

Q: 2. What is Young's formula for calculating the dosage of children?
Ans. Child dose = Adult dose x Age in Years / Age + 12

Q: 3. What is Dilling's formula for calculating the dosage of children?
Ans. Child dose = Adult dose x Age in years / 20

Q: 4. What is Clark's formula for calculating the dosage of children?
Ans: Child dose = Adult dose x Weight in pounds / 150

Q: 5. What do you know about Placebo?
Ans. It is any inactive compound used to satisfy patient's need for drug therapy and in research it is used for controlled studies for the determination of medicinal substances.

Practical:

Q: 6. What is function of glucose in Tyrode's solution?
Ans. It is used to provide nutrition.

Q: 7. What is the function of NaCl, KCl and CaCl2 in tyrode's solution?
Ans. These are used to maintain isotonicity and electrical neutrality.

Q: 8. What is the function of NaHCO3 and NaH2PO4 in tyrode's solution?
Ans. These are used to maintain pH between 7.3-7.6.

Q: 9. What is the function of MgCl2 in the tyrode's solution?
Ans. These are used to regulate motility of the intestine.

Viva from out of course of Pharmacology (Remember Ayah number, Surah number and What the ayah wants to tell):
Q: 10. What is mentioned in Holy Qur'an about walking arrogantly on the Earth?
Ans. It is mentioned in Holy Qur'an:

"(Luqman said,) Do not avert your face from people out of haughtiness and do not strut about arrogantly on the earth. Allah does not love anyone who is vain or boastful. (18)"
(Surah Luqman (Luqman), Surah # 31: Ayah # 18)

Classification of Anti-microbials and Thyroid hormones

Q: 1. Name anti-microbials that act through inhibition of cell wall synthesis?
Ans. Penicillins, Cephalosporins, Cycloserine, Vancomycin, Bacitracin, Ristocetin

Q: 2. Name anti-microbials that act through the inhibition of cell membrane function?Ans. Amphotericin B, Nystatin, Imidazoles, Colistin, Polymyxins

Q:3. Name anti-microbials that act through inhibition of protein synthesis?
Ans. Chloramphenicol, Tetracyclines, Aminoglycosides, Erythromycin, Lincomycin

Q:4. Name anti-microbials that act through inhibition of nucleic acid synthesis?
Ans. Sulfonamides, Trimethoprim, Pyrimethamine, Rifampin, Quinolones, Novobiocin

Q:5. Classify thyroid hormones.
Ans:

(A) Endogenous:
Thyroxine (T4), Triiodothyronine (T3)

(B) Animal Origin:
Desiccated thyroid

(C) Synthetic:
Levothyroxine, Liothyronine, Liotrix

Q: 7. Classify drugs interfering with the synthesis of thyroid hormones (Anti-thyroid drugs).

Ans.
(1) Thioamides:
Propylthiouracil, Thiourea, Thiouracil

(2) Anion Inhibitors:
Perchlorate, Thiocyanate

Q:8. Classify drugs preventing release of thyroid hormones (Anti-thyroid drug).

Ans.

(A) Iodides:
KI, NaI

(B) Iodinated contrast media:
Ipodate, Iopanoic acid

Q: 9. Name the drug causing thyroid gland destruction.
Ans. Radioactive Iodine (I-131)

Q: 10. Prove from the current scientific knowledge that this universe obeys ALLAH?
Ans. According to Alan Guth’s Inflation theory in Physics, after the birth of universe, its size doubles every 10 ^-34 seconds. This doubling took place for not more than 10 ^-30 seconds.

Within this short time, universe expands from something you could hold in hand to something at least 10 ^ 25 times bigger.

In this extremely small interval of time gravity emerged, later on joined by strong and weak nuclear forces, later on joined by elementary particles. From nothing at all, suddenly there were a very large mass of electrons, protons, neutrons and much more.

ALLAH has said in Holy Qur’an:

The Originator of the heavens and earth. When He decides on something, He just says to it, ‘Be!’ and it is. (Surah Al-Baqarah, Surah # 2: Ayah # 117)

Classification of Anti-emetic drugs and laxatives

Q:1. How do you classify anti-emetic drugs?

Ans.

(A) Central Anti-emetics:

(1) Dopamine D2-Receptor Antagonist:
Haloperidol

(2) Sedative-Hypnotics:
Barbiturates, Benzodiazepines

(B) Central and Peripheral Antiemetics:
(1) D2 receptor antagonists:
Metacloperamide, Domperidone

(2) 5-HT3 receptor antagonists:
Ondansetron, Granisetron

(3) Anti-muscarinics:
Scopolamine, Atropine

(4) H1 receptor antagonists:
Ceclizine, Meclizine, Dimenhydrinate

(C) Peripheral antiemetics:
(1) Demulcents:
Gum acacia, Gum tragacanth

(2) Adsorbents:
Kaolin, Aluminium hydroxide

(3) Gastric mucosal anesthetics:
Chlorbutanol

Q: 2. How do you classify anti-diarrheals?

Ans.
(1) Gastrointestinal protectives and adsorbents:
Bismuth subsalicylate, Attapulgite, Pectin, Kaolin

(2) Astringents:
Drugs that have the ability of releasing tannic acid e.g. catechin

(3) Anti-motility drugs
(a) Antimuscarinics:
Mepenzolate, Propantheline, Atropine

(b) Opioid derivatives:
Codeine, Loperamide

Q: 3. How do you classify bulk laxatives?

Ans.
(1) Hydrophilic colloids:
Agar, Psyllium seeds and husks, Bran

(2) Osmotic laxatives:
(a) Saline Cathartics:
Magnesium hydroxide, Magnesium citrate

(b) Lactulose

Q: 4. How do you classify Stimulant laxatives?

Ans.
(1) Mild stimulants
Figs, Prunes, Castor oil

(2) Moderate stimulants:
Phenolphthalein, Bisacodyl

(3) Severe stimulants:
Croton oil, Colocynth,

Q:5. Classify stool softeners?

Ans.

(1) Surface active agents:
Docusate sodium, Poloxamers such as poloxalkol

(2) Mineral oils:
Liquid paraffin

Viva from out of course of Pharmacology:

Q: 6. What is the effect of Quranic Recitation on Alzheimer’s disease (A. D.) ?

Ans.

Name of Journal:
Journal of Neurobiology of Aging

Article title:
The effect of voice of Holy QURAN to decrease aggressive behaviors in people with A. D.

Researchers and Year:
Abdollahzadeh et al. in 2000

Effects:
They have found that Quranic recitation after a 4 week observation period causes a

1. Decrease in aggressive behavior of patients with alzheimer’s disease.

2. General increase in remembrance of past memories.

Introduction of Pharmacology and Pharmacokinetics

Q: 1. What is the definition of drug?
Ans. Any substance intended for use in the diagnosis, cure, treatment, prevention or mitigation of disease in man or some other living things.

Q:2. What is the meaning of generic?
Ans. Any item or product that is sold without using brand name.

Q: 3. What do you mean by brand name?
Ans. It is also called as trade name. It is that name of the drug given to a drug or chemical, for sale, by a manufacturer in agreement with the regulating agencies.

Q: 4. What is pharmacopoeia?
Ans. It is an official book containing an authoritative list of medicines, formulae of these drugs, and standards appropriate for their strength such as USP is the Pharmacopoeia for Britain.

Q: 5. What is the difference between pharmacy and pharmacology?
Ans. The art or science, practice or profession of preparing, preserving, compounding, and dispensing drugs used as medical treatments is pharmacy whereas pharmacology talks with special reference to the mechanism of action of the drug on a (particular) disease.

Q: 6. What do you mean by liberation? Liberation is the process of drug release from the dosage form in which it is corporated.

Q: 7. What do you mean by Absorption?

Q: 8. What do you mean by Distribution?

Q: 9. What do you mean by Metabolism?

Q: 10. What do you mean by Excretion?

Q: 11. Briefly tell about the LADME scheme?

Q: 12. What are the input processes?

Q: 13. What are the output processes?
Q: 14. Shortly tell the factors affecting absorption?

Ans. (A) Factors related to Drug:
(1) Chemical Nature
(2) Dosage Form
(3) Degree of ionization
(4) Lipid water partition coefficient
(B) Factors related to Patient:
(1) Route of Administration
(2) State of health of the absorbing surface
(3) Rate of general circulation

Q: 15. Shortly tell the factors affecting drug distribution?
Ans. (A) Physical and Chemical Factors
(1) Molecular weight
(2) Ionization
(B) Capillary permeability
(C) Binding of drugs to plasma proteins
(D) Tissue affinity
(E) Blood flow

Viva from out of course of Pharmacology (Remember Ayah Number, Surah Number and What the Ayah wants to tell):

Q: 16. What ALLAH has said about arguments (discussion or talking)?
Ans. ALLAH has said in Holy Qur'an:

"Call to the way of your Lord with wisdom and fair admonition, and argue with them in the kindest way. Your Lord knows best who is misguided from His way. And He knows best
who are guided. (125)
(Surah An-Nahl (The Bee), Surah # 16: Ayah #125)"

Ans. Distribution, Metabolism and Excretion are considered as the processes for output.

Ans. Liberation and absorption are considered as the processes for input of the drug.

Ans. It describes the pharmacokinetic processes and short form for Liberation, Absorption, Distribution, Metabolism and Excretion. After the drug is taken it is (1) liberated in the stomach, (2) absorbed by the stomach and intestine, (3) From there distributed in the blood (4) Metabolised in the liver and (5) Eliminated through the pulmonary, biliary or kidney processes.

Ans. It is the process of elimination of the drug either unchanged form or metabolites from the body.

Ans. It is the process in which drug is changed from one form to another which is comparatively easier to eliminate.

Ans. It is the process of diffusion or transfer of drugs from inside blood vessels to outside of blood vessels.

Ans. Absorption is the process of drug movement to the circulating blood from the administration site.

Ans.

Swine flu

Swine flu:
Swine flu was a respiratory disease of pigs. Its mutation in March 2009 has started the outbreak of new strain of Influenza virus (H1N1) that can cause infections in humans. 64 cases have been reported in United States in which 45 are only in New York to the date 28 April, 2009. (CDC)

Diagnosis and Treatment:
rRT-PCR Swine Flu Panel diagnostic test is used for the diagnosis of this virus. Relenza and Tamiflu antiviral products have been reported for the use against this virus. (Medline Plus)

Source:
Centers for Disease control and Prevention (CDC)

U. S. National Library of Medicine (Medline Plus)

Lectures on some Pharmacological Topics

1. Factors affecting drug distribution

2. G-Protein Receptor

3. G-Protein Receptor (Take II)

4. Diuretic action in Kidney

5. Agonists and Antagonists

6. Acid-Base Interaction

7. Inner workings of Enzyme Cytochrome P-450 2C9

8. Aspirin (Absorption and deprotonation)

9. Signal Transduction

Source:
University of Rhode Island

Parasympathomimetic Drugs

Q: 1. Classify parasympathomimetic drugs?
Ans:

(A)Direct acting:

(1)Muscarinic agonists:

(a)Choline Esters:

Bethanechol

(b)Alkaloids:

Muscarine, Pilocarpine, Oxotremorine

(2)Nicotinic agonists:

Alkaloids:

Nicotine, Lobeline

(3)Mixed agonists:

Choline esters:

Acetylcholine, Methacholine, Carbachol

(B)Indirect acting (Anti-Cholinesterase)

(1)Reversible:

(a)Quaternary alcohols:

Edrophonium

(b)Carbamate esters:

Neostigmine, Physostigmine, Ambenonium

(2)Irreversible:

Organophosphate compounds:

Echothiofate, Parathion, Melathoin

Q: 2. Classify Parasympatholytic drugs.

Ans.

(A)Anti-Muscarinic drugs:

(1)Natural alkaloids:

Atropine, Scopolamine (Hyoscine)

(2)Synthetic

(a)Mydriatic:

Homatropine, Eucatropine, Tropicamide

(b)Anti-Parkinsonism:

Benzhexol, Benztropine

(c)Anti-asthmatics:

Ipratropium

(d)Gastrointestinal and Genitourinary:

(i)Tertiary amines:

Pirenzepine, Dicyclomine, Oxybutynin

(ii)Quaternary amines:

Propantheline, Mepenzolate

(B)Anti-Nicotinic drugs:

(1)Ganglion blockers:

(a)Depolarizers:

Nicotine

(b)Competitive:

(i)Secondary amines:

Mecamylamine

(ii)Tertiary amines:

Pempidine

(iii)Quaternary amines:

Hexamethonium, Trimethaphan

(2)Neuromuscular blockers:

(a)Depolarizers:

Succinylcholine, Decamethonium

(b)Competitive:

Tubocurarine, Atracurium, Gallamine

(C)Cholinesterase regenerators:

Pralidoxime

Q: 3. What ALLAH has said about Seafood in Holy Qur’an?Ans: ALLAH has said in Holy Qur’an:“Anything you catch in the sea is lawful for you, and all food from it, for your enjoyment and that of travelers, but land game is forbidden for you while you are in the state of pilgrimage.So have fear of Allah, Him to Whom you will be gathered. (96)
(Surah Al-Ma’ida (The Table, The Table Spread), Surah # 5: Ayah # 96)”

Q: 4. What ALLAH has said about saying "Insha ALLAH"?
Ans:ALLAH has said in Holy Qur'an:

"Never say about anything, ‘I am doing that tomorrow,’(23) without adding ‘If Allah wills.’ Remember your Lord when you forget, and say, ‘Hopefully my Lord will guide me to something closer to right guidance than this.’(24)
(Surah Al-Kahf (The Cave), Surah # 18: Ayah # 23-24)"

Name of New Drugs approved in 2008

1. Almivopan (Entereg):It is used for the fast recovery of upper and lower GIT after resection surgery of small or large bowels.

2. Bendamustine Hydrochloride (Treanda):
It is an alkylating agent active against quiescent and dividing cells.

3. C1 inhibitor, Human (Cinryze):It works for complement and intrinsic coagulation pathways and resulates the fibrinolytic system.

4. Certolizumab Pegol (Cimzia):
It is an inhibitor of tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-alpha).

5. Ciclesonide (Alvesco):Maintenance therapy of asthma for adult patients.

6. Clevidipine (Cleviprex):A calcium channel blocker.

7. Difluprednate (Durezol):
To reduce inflammation and pain after ocular surgery.

8. Eltrombopag (Promacta):To treat increased risk of bleeding in patients of thrombocytopenia.

9. Etravirine (Intelence):It is used in combination of anti-retroviral therapy for HIV-1.

10. Fesoterodine Fumarate (Toviaz):
Treatment of overactive bladder.

11. Lacosamide (Vimpat):
For partial onset seizure in epileptic patients.

12. Methylnaltrexone Bromide (Relistor):
For treating opioid induced constipation.

13. Plerixafor (Mozobil):
For non-Hodgkin's lymphoma and multiple myeloma.

14. Romiplostim (Nplate):
Increases platelet production in bone marrow.

15. Rufinamide (Banzel):
For patients of epilepsy.

16. Somatropin (Accretropin):
For pediatric patients who are showing growth failure due to inappropriate Growth Hormone secretion.

17. Tetrabenazine (Xenazine):
For the treatment of chorea from Huntington's disease.

References:
Erin Sears and Nicole Ladd, (2009), 2008 New drug approvals, Proceedings, 22 (2), 168-174

Free Books

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Vaccine designed to lower blood pressure

CYT006-AngQb is a vaccine against angiotensin II. The 300 microgram dose of this vaccine has the ability of reducing the blood pressure in pateints of mild to moderate blood pressure. Moreover, it did not cause any serious side effects. (Tissot, A. C., et al.)

References:
Tissot, A. C., et al. (2008). Effect of immunisation against angiotensin II with CYT006-AngQb on ambulatory blood pressure: a double-blind, randomised, placebo-controlled phase IIa study. The Lancet, 371 (9615), 821-827

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Sympathetic and Parasympathetic

Q: 1. How norepinephrine (neurotransmitter) is synthesized in the body?
Ans. Norepinephrine is found at most of the sympathetic neuro-effector synapses. It is synthesized by Tyrosine.
1) Tyrosine is hydroxylated to DOPA by the enzyme tyrosine hydroxylase
2) DOPA is decarboxylated to dopamine by the use of DOPA decarboxylase
3) Dopamine is hydroxylated to norepinephrine
4) Norepinephrine is methylated to norepinephrine.

Q: 2. How acetylcholine (neurotransmitter) is synthesized in the body?

Ans. It is stored in granules of synaptic vesicles. It is synthesized by Choline. Choline reacts with acetyl-CoA in the presence of choline acetyltransferase to form acetylcholine.

Q: 3. What is the structure of acetylcholine?

Ans.

Q: 4. What is the structure of Norepinephrine?

Ans.

Q: 5. Give classification of sympathomimetics.

Ans.

1) Alpha Selective:

a) Alpha-1 selective:

Phenylephrine, Cirazoline, Methoxamine

b) Alpha-2 selective:

Clonidine, Methylnorepinephrine, Guanabenz, Guanfacine

2) Beta selective:

a) Beta-1 selective:

Dobutamine, Prenalteral

b) Beta-2 selective:

Terbutaline, Albuterol, Salmeterol, Metaproterenol

3) Alpha and Beta Non-selective:

Epinephrine, Norepinephrine

4) Dopamine Selective:

Dopamine

Q: 6. Give classification of Sympatholytics.

Ans.

1) Alpha Adrenoceptor Antagonists:

a) Alpha-1 Antagonists:

Prazosin, Terazosin, Indoramin

b) Alpha-2 Antagonists:

Tolazoline, Yohimbine, Rauwolscine

c) Alpha-1 and -2 Antagonists:

Phentolamine, Ergot derivatives e.g. ergotamine, dihydroergotamine

2) Beta-Adrenoceptor Antagonists:

a) Beta-1 Antagonists:

Metoprolol, Atenolol, Alprenolol, Esmolol

b) Beta-2 Antagonists:

Butoxamine

c) Beta-1 and -2 Antagonists:

Propranolol, Sotalol, Timolol, Pindolol

3) Mixed (Alpha and Beta) Adrenoceptor Antagonists:

Labetolol

Viva from out of Course of Pharmacology (Memorise the Surah Number, Ayah Number and What the Ayah wants to tell?):

Q: 7. What ALLAH has ordered about Eyes and Chastity?

Ans. ALLAH has mentioned in Holy Qur’an:

“Say to the believers that they should lower their eyes and guard their chastity. That is purer
for them. Allah is aware of what they do. (30)

Say to the believing women that they should lower their eyes and guard their chastity and not display their adornments–except for what normally shows–and draw their head-coverings across their breasts. They should only display their adornments to their husbands or their fathers or their husbands’ fathers, or their sons or their husbands’ sons or their brothers or their brothers’ sons or their sisters’ sons or their women or those they own as slaves or their male attendants who have no sexual desire or children who still have no awareness of women’s private parts. Nor should they stamp their feet so that their hidden ornaments are known. Turn to Allah every one of you, believers, so that hopefully you will have success. (31)

(Surah Al Nur (The light), Surah # 24: Ayah #30-31)”

Introductory viva to some Pharmacological terms

Q: 1. What do you mean by placebo?
Ans. It is an inactive compound used for the patient’s satisfaction about the use of drug for the treatment of a (particular) disease.

Q: 2. What do you mean by loading dose (LD)?
Ans. It is the amount of dose of a drug that will produce the required therapeutic effect by increasing the concentration of drug in plasma upto target concentration.

Q: 3. What is the formula for calculating the loading dose?
Ans. It is calculated by LD = Vd x TC

Where,
Vd = Volume of distribution
TC = Target concentration

Q: 4. What do you know about volume of distribution?
Ans. It is also known as “Apparent volume of distribution”. It is the volume of the fluid through which the drug is normally distributed in the body.

It can be calculated by
Vd = Total amount of drug in the body / Drug plasma concentration
= D / Co

Q: 5. What is the meaning of high value of volume of distribution?
Ans. It shows the high lipophilicity.

Q: 6. What are the formulae for the calculating the dosage for children?
Ans.
Young’s formula:
Child dose = Adult dose x Age in years / Age + 12

Dilling’s formula:
Child dose = Adult dose x Age in years / 20

Clark’s formula:
Child dose = Adult dose x Weight in pounds / 150

Q: 7. What are the different factors important in Drug distribution?
Ans.

1) Physical and Chemical characteristics of drug
a)                                       Molecular weight
          Ionization
2) Capillary permeability
3) Blood flow
4) Binding of drugs to plasma proteins
5) Tissue affinity

Q: 8. What do you mean by partial agonist and give example?
Ans. A partial agonist is that which activates a cell receptor, but does not produce as much of a physiological activity as does a natural full agonist e.g. pindolol at beta-adrenoceptors.

Q: 9. What do you know about inverse agonists and give example?
Ans. An inverse agonist binds to the receptors and produces opposite effects to those of agonists e.g. beta-carbolines on benzodiazepine receptors.

Q: 10. What is the difference between antagonist and inverse agonist?
Ans. Antagonists bind to the receptors without activating the receptors whereas inverse agonists bind to the receptors and produce exactly opposite effects to those of agonists.

Q: 11. What are the different types of antagonists?
Ans.
1) Pharmacological antagonist:
That antagonist which bind to receptors and stop the agonists from interacting with receptors to cause an activity.

2) Physiological antagonist:
The drugs, when act on different receptors and produce exactly opposite effects from one another, are said to be physiological antagonist.

3) Chemical antagonist:
Two drugs when combine with one another form an inactive compound and in the whole process no receptors are involved.

Q: 12. Give an example of Physiological antagonist.
Ans. Drugs acting on adrenergic receptors and cholinergic receptors are physiological antagonists.

Q: 13. Give an example of Chemical antagonist.
Ans. Protamine and Heparin.

Q: 14. What do you mean by synergistic effect?
Ans. It is a biological response to exposure to two or more than two drugs, which is more than the sum of the effects of the individual drugs. (can be symbolized as 1+1 = 3)

Q: 15. What do you know about potentiation?
Ans. A drug that normally lacks any effect of its own will increase the effect of another drug. (can be symbolized as 0 + 2 = 3)

Q: 16. What do you know about therapeutic index (TI)?
Ans. It is the ratio of median lethal dose of a drug to its median effective dose:

Therapeutic index = Median lethal dose/Median effective dose.
TI = LD50/ED50

Where,
median = the value or amount below which 50 % of the cases fall

Viva From Out of course of Pharmacology (Memorise the Surah Number, Ayah Number and What the Ayah wants to tell):

Q: 17. What ALLAH has said about hardwork in Holy Qur'an?

Ans: ALLAH has mentioned in Holy Qur'an:
" For truly with hardship comes ease; (5) truly with hardship comes ease. (6) Therefore, when thou art free (from thine immediate task), still labour hard, (7) And to thy Lord turn (all) thy attention. (8)

(Surah Al-Sharh or Al-Inshirah (The Expansion of the Breast), Surah # 94: Ayah # 5-8)"

Q: 18. What ALLAH has said about raising voices?

Ans. ALLAH has mentioned in Holy Qur'an:
"(Luqman said to his son,) ‘Be moderate in your tread and lower your voice. The most hateful of voices is the donkey’s bray.’ (19)

(Surah Luqman (Luqman), Surah # 31: Ayah # 19)"

Basic Pharmacology (Viva Preparation)

Q: 1. What is the difference between receptor and neurotransmitter?

Ans. Receptor is a structural protein molecule on the cell surface or within the cytoplasm that binds to a specific factor, such as a hormone, antigen, or neurotransmitter. Whereas neurotransmitters are the chemicals that carry messages between different nerve cells or between nerve cell and muscles.

Q: 2. What are adrenergic receptors?

Ans. These are reactive components of effector tissues. These receptors are activated by norepinephrine and/or epinephrine and by various adrenergic drugs. On activation, it results in a change of effector tissue function e.g. relaxation of bronchial muscles and contraction of arteriolar muscles.

Q: 3. What do you know about G proteins?

Ans. These are intracellular membrane associated proteins stimulated by various receptors such as beta adrenergic receptors. They work as second messengers. Due to high affinity for guanine nucleotides, they are termed as G proteins.

Q: 4. Name some of the cholinergic antagonists.

Ans. Atropine, Botulinum toxin, Scopolamine, Tubocurarine, Erythroidin (nicotinic cholinergic antagonist)

Q: 5. Name some of the transmitter substances.

Ans. Acetylcholine, Norepinephrine, Dopamine, Serotonin, Gamma aminobutyric acid (GABA), Glutamate

Q: 6. What are the main types of receptors?

Ans. Four main types of receptors: 1) Ligand gated channels 2) G protein coupled receptors 3) Nuclear receptors 4) Kinase linked receptors

Q:7. What are ligand gated channels?

Ans. These are made up of subunits of protein that form a central core.

Q: 8. What are the main types of ligand gated channels?

Ans. 1) Nicotinic receptor 2) GABA receptor

Q: 9. What do you know about G protein coupled receptors?

Ans. They form a family of receptors with seven membrane spanning helices. They are associated with physiological responses by second messengers.

Q:10. What do you know about nuclear receptors?

Ans. They are used to regulate transcription and protein synthesis. These receptors for steroid hormones and thyroid hormones are located in the cell nucleus.

Q:11. What are kinase linked receptors?

Ans. These are surface receptors that have intrinsic tyrosine kinase activity. They include receptors for cytokines, insulin and growth factors.

Q: 12. What do you mean by second messenger?

Ans. An intermediate molecule produced as a result of hormone receptor interaction e.g. adenosine 3c,5c-cyclic monophosphate, Calcium and Inositide.

Q: 13. What do you know about baroreceptor?

Ans. Nerve endings those are sensitive to blood pressure changes.

Q: 14. What is pharmacology?

Ans. It is the science of drugs including their origin or sources, chemistry, production, composition, pharmacokinetics, therapeutic use, and toxicology.

Q: 15. What is the difference between pharmacy and pharmacology?

Ans. The art or science, practice or profession of preparing, preserving, compounding, and dispensing drugs used as medical treatments is pharmacy whereas pharmacology talks with special reference to the mechanism of action of the drug on a (particular) disease.

JNJ 7777120

Its full name is 1-[(5-chloro-1H-indol-2-yl)carbonyl]-4-methylpiperazine . (Thurmond et al.) It is developed by Johnson and Johnson Pharmaceutical R & D as an anti-inflammatory agent. It is better in the treatment of itching. (wikipedia.com, 2009)

It blocks the chemotaxis induced by histamine in mouse. (Thurmond et al.)

References:
1. JNJ 7777120 (2009). wikipedia, retrieved on 03. 03. 2009 from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JNJ_7777120

2. Thurmond, R. L., Desai, P. J., Dunford, P. J., Leung, W. P. F., Hofstra, C. L., Jiang, W., Nguyen, S., Riley, J. P., Sun, S., Williams, K. N., Edwards, J. P., and Karlsson, L., (2004). Journal of Pharmacology And Experimental Therapeutics, 404-413.

SRT 1720

Action:
It is an activator of small molecule SIRT 1 (which is an NAD + dependent deacetylase and has the ability of removing acetyl groups from a variey of compounds). It has similar activity as that of resveratrol but is 1000 times more active than resveratrol. (wikipedia, 2009)

Uses:
It is under investigation for the treatment of obesity and diabetes.(wikipedia, 2009)

References:
Wikipedia, (2009). SRT 1720. Retreived on 27, February 2009 from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SRT1720

Resveratrol

Its other name is 3,5,4′-trihydrostilbene. (1) Resveratrol is one the naturally occuring phytoalexin compound. This is found in grapes.

Actions:
Resveratrol has been found to increase the life span of yeast and worms. It is thought that it stimulates a deacetylase enzyme namely SIRT1. This enzyme have the ability of regulatin several transcriptional factors and enzymes which are responsible for the nutritional availability. (Mitchell D Knutson et al.)

Therapeutic uses:
It has found practical uses as an anti-cancer agent for breast cancer in both hormone dependent and hormone independent. (Hiroyuki Nakagawa et al.)
It has also been found that it has the ability of protecting against inflammatory arthritis. (N. Elmali et al.)

References:
(1) Encyclopedia of Genetics, Genomics, Proteomics and Informatics, 2008, page 1684

Hiroyuki Nakagawa, Yasuhiko Kiyozuka, Yoshiko Uemura, Hideto Senzaki, Nobuaki Shikata, Koshiro Hioki and Airo Tsubura, 2001, Resveratrol inhibits human breast cancer cell growth and may mitigate the effect of linoleic acid, a potent breast cancer cell stimulator, Journal of Cancer Research and Clinical Oncology, Volume 127, 258-264

Mitchell D Knutson, Christiaan Leeuwenburgh, 2008, Resveratrol and novel potent activators of SIRT1: effects on aging and age-related diseases, Nutrition reviews, volume 66, 591-596

N. Elmali , O. Baysal , A. Harma , I. Esenkaya and B. Mizrak, 2006, Effects of Resveratrol in Inflammatory Arthritis , Inflammation, volume 30, 1-6

Further reading:
A Cardiologist's Guide to Anti-Aging, Antioxidants & Resveratrol by M.D. Dr. William S. Gruss

Resveratrol in Health and Disease (Oxidative Stress and Disease) by Bharat B. Aggarwal and Shishir Shishodia

Resveratrol and Human Health by Debasis Bagchi

Effects of Naturally Occurring Compounds on HumanCancer Cells: Anticancer Activity of Resveratrol, Piceatannol,Gallic Acid & their Analogs by Philipp Saiko

Natural products:
Source Naturals Resveratrol, Tablets, 60 tablets (Read Nutrition facts)

Copyright (c), 2009, http://jeepakistan.blogspot.com

Tigliane

Structure of Tigliane:General Characteristics:
It has almost same system as that of daphnanes i.e. tricyclo tetradecane ring system. It has additional gem-dimethyl cyclopropane appended to the 6-membered ring. (Its most) famous (part) is Phorbol, which was named in about 25 BC by King Juba II of Mauritania. Wender, on one hand, and Cha, on the other hand, has completed its synthesis.

Action:
It primarily acts on protein kinase C (PKC, which is important for regulating cellular growth and differentiation).

Isolation of tiglianes:
It has been isolated from Euphorbia and Thymelaceae as esters.

Therapeutic uses:
It was primarily used for tumors, parasites, migraines, venereal diseases and as purgatives.
It has been found that C12 deoxy derivative blocks formation of the tumor.

Adverse effects:
Its most important tumor promoting example is Tetradodecanoyl phorbol acetate.

Further reading:
Naturally Occurring Phorbol Esters by Evans

Terbutaline

It is a member of the family of medications which is in use for
1. stopping the contractions of preterm labor (tocolytics)
2. asthma

It is a beta 2 adrenergic receptor agonist.

Pharmacokinetics:
The inhaled form of terbutaline starts working in 10-15 minutes and lasts for about 5-6 hours.

Side effects:
It may cause tachycardia, pulmonary edema, hypokalemia and in fetus it may also cause hypoglycemia.

Further reading:
Beta 2-agonists in Asthma Treatment (Lung Biology in Health and Disease) by Romain Pauwels and Paul O. Byrne

Fragmentation

In cell biology, fragmentation is the breaking apart of cells or cell organelles into smaller parts. Fragmentation may serve as a normal function for the cell, but may also be the result of a disorder.

Functions of cell fragmentation include:
Reproduction
Apoptosis

Disorders:
Microangiopathic diseases results in red blood cell fragmentation into schistocytes.

Further reading:
Biology: A Self-Teaching Guide, 2nd edition by Steven Daniel Garber

Lorentz force law

It is equal to a force on a point charge due to electromagnetic fields.

It is given by the following equation in terms of electromagnetic fields:

F = q [E + (v x B)]

where,
F = force (in newtons)
E = electric field (in volts per meter)
B= magnetic field (in teslas)
q = electric charge of the particle (in coulombs)
v = instantaneous velocity of the particle (in meters per second)

Dissociation

It is a process in which there is separation of ionic compounds into smaller parts (molecules or ions).

It is usually a reversible process.

It is the opposite of association and recombination.

pKa

pKa is an acid dissociation constant.

Definition:
It is the negative logarithm of the acid dissociation constant i.e., Ka

Equation:
Its equation is:
pKa = -log10 Ka

Importance:
1. It shows the extent of dissociation. As the value of pKa increases, the extent of dissociation will decrease.
2. It has the ability of telling the acidic or basic properties of a substance.

Mass analyzer

Mass analyzer is a technique used for the separation of the ions according to mass/charge ratio.

Equation for the Mass analyzer:

1. Lorentz force law:
F=Q(E+v*B)

Where
F = force applied to the ion
Q = ion charge
E = electric field
v*B = the vector cross product of the ion velocity and the magnetic field

2. Newton's second law of motion:
F=ma

Where
F = force applied to the ion
m = mass of the ion
a = acceleration

By combining the above two equations, we get:

Q(E+v*B) = ma

=> E+v*B = a(m/Q)

where m/Q denotes mass to charge ratio.

Types of mass analyzers:

There are various types of mass analyzers:

1. Scanning Mass Analyzers

2. TOF - Mass Analyzers

3. Trapped Ion Mass Analyzers

Ion Source

It is a type of an electro-magnetic instrument, primarily used to create charged particles.

It is used in ion implanters, ione engines, mass spectrometersand particle accelerators.

Mass spectrometry

Introduction:
Mass spectrometry is a technique used in analysis.

It is a form of spectrometry in which, usually, high energy electrons are bombarded onto a sample and this produces charged particles of the parent sample; these ions are then focused by electrostatic and magnetic fields to produce a spectrum of the charged fragments which is helpful in establishing the ratio of charged to mass of the particles.

Essential parts:
The design of a mass spectrometer has three essential modules:

1. An ion source:
This transforms the molecules in a sample into ionized fragments.

2. A mass analyzer:
This causes the sorting of the ions by their masses by applying electric and magnetic fields

3. A detector:
This measures the value of some indicator quantity and thus provides data for calculating the abundances of each ion fragment present.

Uses and applications:
The technique has both qualitative and quantitative uses, such as

1. Identifying unknown compounds,
2. Determining the isotopic composition of elements in a compound,
3. Determining the structure of a compound by observing its fragmentation. Its use is there in the identification and structural determination of the flavonoid glycosides. ( Maciej Stobiecki)
4. Quantifying the amount of a compound in a sample,
5. Studying the fundamentals of gas phase ion chemistry
6. Determining other physical, chemical, or biological properties of compounds.

It is now applicable in the field of proteomics. (Christine C. Wu et al.)

References:
Christine C. Wu and John R. Yates III, The application of mass spectrometry to membrane proteomics, Nature Biotechnology 21, 262 - 267

Maciej Stobiecki, 2000, Application of mass spectrometry for identification and structural studies of flavonoid glycosides , Phytochemistry, 54, 237-256

Further reading:
Mass Spectrometry: Principles and Applications by Edmond de Hoffman and Vincent Stroobant

Mass Spectrometry: A Textbook by Jürgen H. Gross

Metabolism

Metabolism is essential for maintaining life by certain chemical reactions. In the result of these reactions and phenomenon, organisms develop ability to grow and reproduce, while maintaining their structures and adopt itself according to the environment.

Types of Metabolism:
There are two types of metabolism:
1. Catabolism:
Catabolism catabolyze or breaks the organic matter and produce heat or energy as a result.

2. Anabolism
Anabolism utilize the energy produced by the catabolism of organic matter.

Factors important in metabolism:
1. Chemicals
Chemicals are important for the metabolic pathways.

2. Enzymes
These enzymes catalyze a reaction involving the chemicals. They make the environment favourable for a reaction to proceed.